編者按：本(ben)文(wen)主(zhu)(zhu)要(yao)從行(xing)政(zheng)忠誠(cheng)(cheng)的(de)(de)(de)(de)內涵及必(bi)要(yao)性；行(xing)政(zheng)忠誠(cheng)(cheng)困境的(de)(de)(de)(de)產生及其原因(yin)；行(xing)政(zheng)忠誠(cheng)(cheng)困境的(de)(de)(de)(de)解(jie)決(jue)途徑(jing)進行(xing)論述。其中，主(zhu)(zhu)要(yao)包(bao)括：官僚個體(ti)被(bei)要(yao)求(qiu)必(bi)須服(fu)從組(zu)織(zhi)(zhi)規(gui)則，履行(xing)組(zu)織(zhi)(zhi)的(de)(de)(de)(de)職責，保(bao)持對(dui)組(zu)織(zhi)(zhi)的(de)(de)(de)(de)效(xiao)忠、行(xing)政(zheng)忠誠(cheng)(cheng)指的(de)(de)(de)(de)是(shi)行(xing)政(zheng)主(zhu)(zhu)體(ti)對(dui)上級權力(li)主(zhu)(zhu)體(ti)和更高價值主(zhu)(zhu)體(ti)的(de)(de)(de)(de)服(fu)從、盡責和尊崇(chong)、忠誠(cheng)(cheng)是(shi)行(xing)政(zheng)組(zu)織(zhi)(zhi)體(ti)系(xi)和治理方式的(de)(de)(de)(de)內在(zai)要(yao)求(qiu)、服(fu)從對(dui)實現(xian)行(xing)政(zheng)目(mu)標(biao)的(de)(de)(de)(de)重(zhong)要(yao)性、行(xing)政(zheng)忠誠(cheng)(cheng)不論對(dui)于行(xing)政(zheng)組(zu)織(zhi)(zhi)系(xi)統的(de)(de)(de)(de)有(you)效(xiao)運行(xing)，還(huan)是(shi)對(dui)于行(xing)政(zheng)人(ren)員(yuan)自我價值的(de)(de)(de)(de)實現(xian)，都是(shi)很重(zhong)要(yao)的(de)(de)(de)(de)、行(xing)政(zheng)忠誠(cheng)(cheng)可(ke)能會(hui)在(zai)一定(ding)程度上限制、壓抑人(ren)們的(de)(de)(de)(de)道德自主(zhu)(zhu)性、行(xing)政(zheng)人(ren)員(yuan)的(de)(de)(de)(de)責任和義務之間的(de)(de)(de)(de)沖突、必(bi)須贏得(de)公眾的(de)(de)(de)(de)信(xin)任與(yu)支持、檢舉行(xing)為要(yao)求(qiu)正(zheng)義的(de)(de)(de)(de)制度背景、必(bi)須保(bao)護(hu)檢舉者等(deng)，具體(ti)請(qing)詳見。

［論文摘要(yao)］行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)忠誠(cheng)是(shi)行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)倫(lun)理的(de)一個(ge)基本(ben)規范，是(shi)行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)主體(ti)應有(you)的(de)一種道德品質(zhi)。行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)忠誠(cheng)是(shi)官(guan)僚(liao)(liao)(liao)組(zu)織對官(guan)僚(liao)(liao)(liao)個(ge)體(ti)的(de)最基本(ben)要(yao)求，同時也是(shi)官(guan)僚(liao)(liao)(liao)組(zu)織得以存在(zai)和(he)正(zheng)常(chang)運行(xing)(xing)的(de)制度保障。然而(er)，在(zai)現實的(de)政(zheng)治實踐當(dang)中，官(guan)僚(liao)(liao)(liao)個(ge)體(ti)面臨著嚴重的(de)忠誠(cheng)困(kun)境。解決這一倫(lun)理困(kun)境最為有(you)效的(de)途徑應該說就是(shi)行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)檢舉。

［論(lun)文關鍵(jian)詞］行政忠誠；倫理困境(jing)；行政檢舉

在官僚(liao)組織(zhi)當(dang)中，官僚(liao)個體(ti)(ti)被要求必(bi)須服從組織(zhi)規則，履行組織(zhi)的(de)(de)職責，保持對(dui)組織(zhi)的(de)(de)效忠。然而，在現實(shi)的(de)(de)政治實(shi)踐(jian)中，當(dang)組織(zhi)利(li)益(yi)和(he)公眾(zhong)利(li)益(yi)出(chu)現對(dui)立和(he)矛盾的(de)(de)時候，尤其是(shi)面對(dui)組織(zhi)內部嚴重的(de)(de)尋(xun)租和(he)腐敗行為的(de)(de)時候，作為官僚(liao)個體(ti)(ti)，應(ying)該是(shi)忠誠(cheng)于(yu)組織(zhi)還(huan)是(shi)應(ying)該忠誠(cheng)于(yu)公眾(zhong)？這是(shi)當(dang)前存(cun)在的(de)(de)一(yi)個倫理(li)困境。如(ru)何走出(chu)這一(yi)倫理(li)困境已經成為人們關注的(de)(de)焦(jiao)點。

一、行政忠誠(cheng)的內涵及必(bi)要性

行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)忠誠(cheng)(cheng)指的是(shi)(shi)行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)主(zhu)(zhu)體對上(shang)級權(quan)(quan)力(li)主(zhu)(zhu)體和(he)(he)更(geng)高價值主(zhu)(zhu)體的服從、盡(jin)責和(he)(he)尊崇。忠誠(cheng)(cheng)行(xing)(xing)為的出發點是(shi)(shi)服從，服從上(shang)級和(he)(he)組織(zhi)(zhi)的意志和(he)(he)政(zheng)令(ling)，按上(shang)級及(ji)組織(zhi)(zhi)的要(yao)求和(he)(he)方針辦事(shi)，不(bu)違(wei)抗(kang)、不(bu)推諉。同時(shi)，這(zhe)種(zhong)服從不(bu)是(shi)(shi)消極的，而是(shi)(shi)真心實意地去(qu)執行(xing)(xing)上(shang)級和(he)(he)組織(zhi)(zhi)的指令(ling)，盡(jin)責盡(jin)力(li)實現上(shang)級和(he)(he)組織(zhi)(zhi)的目(mu)標，全(quan)(quan)心全(quan)(quan)意地去(qu)維護上(shang)級和(he)(he)組織(zhi)(zhi)的權(quan)(quan)威(wei)。

[摘(zhai)要]伴隨(sui)著經濟和社會的(de)(de)進步，公共(gong)行(xing)政(zheng)的(de)(de)發展，勢必對以國家行(xing)政(zheng)為(wei)主要調整對象的(de)(de)傳統(tong)行(xing)政(zheng)法(fa)范(fan)式(shi)(shi)(shi)提(ti)出挑戰(zhan)，最終(zhong)轉變為(wei)以公共(gong)利益為(wei)中心的(de)(de)公共(gong)行(xing)政(zheng)法(fa)范(fan)式(shi)(shi)(shi)。公共(gong)行(xing)政(zheng)法(fa)范(fan)式(shi)(shi)(shi)給行(xing)政(zheng)法(fa)理論(lun)研(yan)究帶來了新(xin)的(de)(de)研(yan)究視角的(de)(de)轉換。

[關(guan)鍵詞]范式；國家(jia)行(xing)政(zheng)；公(gong)共行(xing)政(zheng)

行(xing)(xing)政法(fa)是調整和規范(fan)(fan)行(xing)(xing)政權的(de)法(fa)。伴隨著經濟和社會(hui)的(de)進步，公(gong)共行(xing)(xing)政的(de)發展(zhan)，勢必(bi)引起(qi)傳統(tong)行(xing)(xing)政法(fa)范(fan)(fan)式(shi)的(de)轉變，本文(wen)就(jiu)此做些探討。

一、范式概念的(de)引入(ru)

“研(yan)究的(de)方法，有(you)關什么是(shi)成問(wen)題(ti)(ti)的(de)想法，何者應(ying)該包(bao)括(kuo)在(zai)研(yan)究領域里，何者應(ying)該排除在(zai)外的(de)標(biao)準”，科(ke)學(xue)史學(xue)者稱之為(wei)范(fan)(fan)式(shi)(shi)(shi)的(de)問(wen)題(ti)(ti)。[1]范(fan)(fan)式(shi)(shi)(shi)為(wei)特定專業(ye)領域的(de)研(yan)究提供了(le)典型的(de)問(wen)題(ti)(ti)及相(xiang)應(ying)的(de)解(jie)答，亦即設(she)計了(le)分(fen)析與研(yan)究的(de)理(li)(li)論前(qian)提、框架(jia)和(he)推理(li)(li)結(jie)構(gou)。科(ke)學(xue)工作者在(zai)范(fan)(fan)式(shi)(shi)(shi)的(de)框架(jia)內進(jin)行研(yan)究，探討這一(yi)范(fan)(fan)式(shi)(shi)(shi)能夠加(jia)以說(shuo)明的(de)事(shi)實(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)，進(jin)一(yi)步詳細表(biao)達(da)范(fan)(fan)式(shi)(shi)(shi)本(ben)身(shen)，這就(jiu)(jiu)是(shi)一(yi)種促進(jin)知識進(jin)步的(de)科(ke)學(xue)實(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)踐。范(fan)(fan)式(shi)(shi)(shi)的(de)作用集(ji)中(zhong)于(yu)：理(li)(li)順和(he)總結(jie)現實(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)，理(li)(li)解(jie)現象之間的(de)因果關系，預期(qi)和(he)預測(ce)未來的(de)發展，從不重要的(de)東(dong)(dong)西中(zhong)區分(fen)出(chu)(chu)重要的(de)東(dong)(dong)西，弄清我(wo)(wo)們(men)應(ying)當(dang)選擇哪條(tiao)道路來實(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)現我(wo)(wo)們(men)的(de)目標(biao)。[2]如果傳(chuan)范(fan)(fan)式(shi)(shi)(shi)無(wu)法解(jie)決(jue)科(ke)學(xue)實(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)踐中(zhong)出(chu)(chu)現的(de)問(wen)題(ti)(ti)，人們(men)就(jiu)(jiu)會設(she)計不同的(de)范(fan)(fan)式(shi)(shi)(shi)，在(zai)長(chang)期(qi)實(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)踐中(zhong)追求對新(xin)范(fan)(fan)式(shi)(shi)(shi)的(de)系統表(biao)達(da)，解(jie)決(jue)導致傳(chuan)統范(fan)(fan)式(shi)(shi)(shi)危機的(de)問(wen)題(ti)(ti)。最終(zhong)，新(xin)的(de)范(fan)(fan)式(shi)(shi)(shi)會取代傳(chuan)統范(fan)(fan)式(shi)(shi)(shi)，科(ke)學(xue)工作者在(zai)新(xin)范(fan)(fan)式(shi)(shi)(shi)下(xia)繼續進(jin)行科(ke)學(xue)的(de)實(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)踐。

作(zuo)為一(yi)門社(she)會科學，行政(zheng)法就是解決(jue)有(you)關行政(zheng)問(wen)題的(de)法。[3]范式(shi)可(ke)以指導人們(men)的(de)研究(jiu)，可(ke)以使(shi)人們(men)集中精力(li)深入探索更(geng)為具體的(de)問(wen)題，以尋求現實世界與(yu)范式(shi)之間相稱性(xing)的(de)方式(shi)來發展知識。因此，行政(zheng)法范式(shi)的(de)研究(jiu)，在行政(zheng)法各有(you)問(wen)題的(de)理(li)論研究(jiu)中具有(you)基礎(chu)性(xing)之重要意(yi)義。

內容提(ti)(ti)要：本文運用政(zheng)治(zhi)經濟(ji)分析方(fang)法，分析了全(quan)球(qiu)化的(de)不(bu)同含義、成因、影響，以及全(quan)球(qiu)化及其對公共(gong)行政(zheng)的(de)意(yi)義，并對全(quan)球(qiu)公共(gong)行政(zheng)研究者和(he)實(shi)際工(gong)作者提(ti)(ti)出了政(zheng)策建議。

關鍵詞：全球(qiu)化(hua)，公共(gong)行(xing)政，國家

導言

新(xin)(xin)千年(nian)到來之機，一(yi)(yi)種(zhong)新(xin)(xin)文(wen)明(ming)正展露曙光。有(you)關這種(zhong)文(wen)明(ming)特(te)性的(de)(de)(de)(de)變化(hua)已經成(cheng)為諸(zhu)多研究的(de)(de)(de)(de)主題，例(li)如，亨廷頓談(tan)到了“文(wen)明(ming)的(de)(de)(de)(de)沖突”，福山預(yu)言了“歷(li)史與(yu)人(ren)的(de)(de)(de)(de)終結”，科(ke)爾賓則(ze)宣稱要“回歸中世(shi)紀(ji)”。文(wen)明(ming)的(de)(de)(de)(de)這一(yi)(yi)變化(hua)的(de)(de)(de)(de)標記(ji)是(shi)全(quan)球化(hua)的(de)(de)(de)(de)進程(cheng)，這導致(zhi)了世(shi)界范(fan)圍的(de)(de)(de)(de)一(yi)(yi)體化(hua)和各(ge)種(zhong)引人(ren)矚(zhu)目的(de)(de)(de)(de)成(cheng)就(jiu)，并激發(fa)了至少兩(liang)種(zhong)不同的(de)(de)(de)(de)思想回應(ying)。

一(yi)(yi)方(fang)面，有(you)(you)些(xie)人認為，跨國(guo)(guo)公(gong)(gong)司的(de)成(cheng)(cheng)長尤其是它(ta)(ta)(ta)“與國(guo)(guo)家無關”（state-indifferent）的(de)性(xing)(xing)質(zhi)，以及全球資本主義的(de)擴張(zhang)，已經(jing)使國(guo)(guo)家變(bian)得無足輕重(zhong)、甚至多(duo)余；有(you)(you)些(xie)人甚至認為工(gong)作(zuo)和(he)公(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)行政已經(jing)終結。另一(yi)(yi)些(xie)人則(ze)相信，全球資本主義導(dao)致(zhi)了(le)(le)超國(guo)(guo)家管(guan)理(li)機(ji)構(gou)的(de)出現，它(ta)(ta)(ta)們(men)(men)即便沒有(you)(you)取代疆(jiang)域(yu)性(xing)(xing)的(de)民族(zu)(zu)國(guo)(guo)家，也成(cheng)(cheng)為民族(zu)(zu)國(guo)(guo)家的(de)重(zhong)要補充。還有(you)(you)一(yi)(yi)些(xie)人認為，全球資本主義也侵蝕(shi)了(le)(le)共(gong)(gong)同體意識和(he)城市權力結構(gou)，造成(cheng)(cheng)了(le)(le)城市職業的(de)喪失。他們(men)(men)警告(gao)說，超國(guo)(guo)家管(guan)理(li)機(ji)構(gou)加(jia)深了(le)(le)欠發達(da)國(guo)(guo)家的(de)依(yi)附(fu)性(xing)(xing)，加(jia)重(zhong)了(le)(le)它(ta)(ta)(ta)們(men)(men)的(de)財(cai)政危機(ji)，在這些(xie)國(guo)(guo)家引(yin)發了(le)(le)嚴(yan)重(zhong)的(de)統治困(kun)難。

另一(yi)(yi)方面，一(yi)(yi)些(xie)公(gong)(gong)共(gong)行(xing)政(zheng)管(guan)理(li)者(zhe)(zhe)和(he)(he)公(gong)(gong)共(gong)政(zheng)策分析家(jia)(jia)則(ze)預言，全(quan)(quan)球性(xing)公(gong)(gong)司將創造(zao)一(yi)(yi)個超越民(min)族國家(jia)(jia)的(de)(de)(de)(de)世(shi)界秩序，即一(yi)(yi)個“地(di)球村(cun)”、一(yi)(yi)個實行(xing)“全(quan)(quan)球性(xing)管(guan)理(li)”的(de)(de)(de)(de)“世(shi)界政(zheng)府”。部分理(li)論家(jia)(jia)甚至試圖(tu)提出(chu)一(yi)(yi)個普遍適用的(de)(de)(de)(de)、全(quan)(quan)球性(xing)質的(de)(de)(de)(de)公(gong)(gong)共(gong)行(xing)政(zheng)理(li)論。其他人則(ze)竭力(li)反駁國家(jia)(jia)終結的(de)(de)(de)(de)觀點，為民(min)族國家(jia)(jia)以及(ji)與之相(xiang)應(ying)的(de)(de)(de)(de)公(gong)(gong)共(gong)行(xing)政(zheng)辯(bian)護。赫斯特和(he)(he)湯普森（HirstandThompson）、佐茲曼(man)（Zysman）、波易(yi)爾和(he)(he)多齊(qi)（BoyerandDrache）1996年(nian)的(de)(de)(de)(de)論著指出(chu)，全(quan)(quan)球化被夸大了(le)，政(zheng)府在(zai)一(yi)(yi)些(xie)關(guan)(guan)鍵性(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)管(guan)理(li)功能上(shang)依(yi)舊(jiu)舉(ju)足輕(qing)重。國際關(guan)(guan)系學(xue)(xue)界的(de)(de)(de)(de)現實主義者(zhe)(zhe)也指出(chu)，“實際上(shang)，（國家(jia)(jia)）的(de)(de)(de)(de)主權不是被削弱，而(er)是被強化了(le)”。同(tong)樣，在(zai)八(ba)十(shi)年(nian)代“把國家(jia)(jia)帶回”到學(xue)(xue)科(ke)研究領域的(de)(de)(de)(de)社會學(xue)(xue)家(jia)(jia)、政(zheng)治學(xue)(xue)家(jia)(jia)米歇(xie)爾·曼(man)恩（MichaelMamn）和(he)(he)塞得(de)·斯考(kao)波爾（ThedaSkcopol）等，也始終懷疑國家(jia)(jia)從歷史中消失(shi)的(de)(de)(de)(de)說法。

一、行政(zheng)現(xian)代性凸顯期

行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)現(xian)代(dai)性(xing)(xing)凸顯于進步(bu)時(shi)(shi)代(dai)前(qian)不(bu)(bu)(bu)久(jiu)，這(zhe)個階段(duan)為(wei)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)現(xian)代(dai)性(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)發(fa)展奠定了(le)堅(jian)實的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)基礎。科(ke)學(xue)(xue)(xue)技(ji)(ji)術(shu)(shu)革命(ming)使得(de)資(zi)本(ben)(ben)主(zhu)(zhu)義(yi)(yi)(yi)國(guo)家由(you)(you)奉行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)消極(ji)主(zhu)(zhu)義(yi)(yi)(yi)和(he)放任主(zhu)(zhu)義(yi)(yi)(yi)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)策不(bu)(bu)(bu)得(de)不(bu)(bu)(bu)轉變為(wei)積極(ji)主(zhu)(zhu)動(dong)干預社(she)會(hui)生(sheng)活。資(zi)本(ben)(ben)主(zhu)(zhu)義(yi)(yi)(yi)發(fa)展到(dao)19世紀(ji)中(zhong)葉以后，由(you)(you)科(ke)學(xue)(xue)(xue)技(ji)(ji)術(shu)(shu)革命(ming)帶(dai)來(lai)(lai)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)是(shi)(shi)生(sheng)產技(ji)(ji)術(shu)(shu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)巨(ju)大(da)變革，資(zi)本(ben)(ben)主(zhu)(zhu)義(yi)(yi)(yi)自由(you)(you)競爭向(xiang)壟斷時(shi)(shi)期(qi)過渡，不(bu)(bu)(bu)僅(jin)(jin)社(she)會(hui)生(sheng)產力的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)迅速發(fa)展和(he)經(jing)(jing)濟(ji)結構的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)巨(ju)大(da)變化(hua)(hua)(hua)使社(she)會(hui)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)經(jing)(jing)濟(ji)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)任務越(yue)來(lai)(lai)越(yue)繁重(zhong)，而(er)且社(she)會(hui)關系的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)日益(yi)復(fu)雜化(hua)(hua)(hua)也帶(dai)來(lai)(lai)了(le)一系列的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)社(she)會(hui)問題，矛盾沖突甚(shen)至(zhi)成為(wei)一種(zhong)普(pu)遍的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)社(she)會(hui)現(xian)象，因此(ci)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)府(fu)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)活動(dong)變得(de)越(yue)來(lai)(lai)越(yue)重(zhong)要(yao)(yao)，并且需要(yao)(yao)各種(zhong)復(fu)雜的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)手(shou)段(duan)。資(zi)本(ben)(ben)主(zhu)(zhu)義(yi)(yi)(yi)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)發(fa)展首(shou)先(xian)體(ti)現(xian)在(zai)(zai)(zai)工(gong)(gong)(gong)廠企(qi)(qi)業(ye)(ye)內(nei)(nei)部(bu)，由(you)(you)此(ci)首(shou)先(xian)產生(sheng)了(le)各種(zhong)應付工(gong)(gong)(gong)廠日益(yi)復(fu)雜與(yu)(yu)變化(hua)(hua)(hua)莫測的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)環(huan)境的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)思(si)(si)想(xiang)與(yu)(yu)方式，這(zhe)些思(si)(si)想(xiang)多(duo)體(ti)現(xian)于由(you)(you)技(ji)(ji)術(shu)(shu)理(li)(li)(li)(li)性(xing)(xing)崇拜而(er)導(dao)致(zhi)(zhi)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)對效(xiao)率目(mu)標的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)追求，在(zai)(zai)(zai)這(zhe)一時(shi)(shi)期(qi)產生(sheng)了(le)四位管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)思(si)(si)想(xiang)卓越(yue)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)，他(ta)(ta)們(men)是(shi)(shi)播(bo)下關注工(gong)(gong)(gong)業(ye)(ye)中(zhong)人的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)因素的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)第(di)一批(pi)種(zhong)子的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)企(qi)(qi)業(ye)(ye)主(zhu)(zhu)羅(luo)伯特•歐文、通(tong)過應用技(ji)(ji)術(shu)(shu)手(shou)段(duan)來(lai)(lai)幫助(zhu)人類(lei)努力，成功運用運籌(chou)學(xue)(xue)(xue)與(yu)(yu)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)科(ke)學(xue)(xue)(xue)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)典范人物(wu)查爾(er)斯•巴比(bi)奇、管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)教(jiao)育(yu)領域的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)先(xian)驅安(an)德(de)魯•尤爾(er)、首(shou)先(xian)啟動(dong)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)教(jiao)育(yu)課(ke)程的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)查爾(er)斯•杜賓，從他(ta)(ta)們(men)主(zhu)(zhu)要(yao)(yao)推崇的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)思(si)(si)想(xiang)與(yu)(yu)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)手(shou)段(duan)可(ke)以看出現(xian)代(dai)性(xing)(xing)這(zhe)樣(yang)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)文化(hua)(hua)(hua)特點顯露出的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)端(duan)倪。學(xue)(xue)(xue)界普(pu)遍認(ren)為(wei)威(wei)爾(er)遜(xun)發(fa)表的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)《行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)學(xue)(xue)(xue)研(yan)究》是(shi)(shi)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)學(xue)(xue)(xue)創立(li)(li)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)標志，其(qi)實不(bu)(bu)(bu)然(ran)，在(zai)(zai)(zai)威(wei)爾(er)遜(xun)之前(qian)就(jiu)已經(jing)(jing)有(you)闡述行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)學(xue)(xue)(xue)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)學(xue)(xue)(xue)者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)及(ji)理(li)(li)(li)(li)論了(le)，有(you)學(xue)(xue)(xue)者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)認(ren)為(wei)對公共(gong)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)進行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)系統研(yan)究始于德(de)國(guo)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)官房學(xue)(xue)(xue)，德(de)國(guo)官房學(xue)(xue)(xue)產生(sheng)于17－18世紀(ji)，是(shi)(shi)有(you)關政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)治(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)、經(jing)(jing)濟(ji)知識的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)總稱(cheng)，包括財政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)學(xue)(xue)(xue)、國(guo)民經(jing)(jing)濟(ji)學(xue)(xue)(xue)、私經(jing)(jing)濟(ji)經(jing)(jing)營學(xue)(xue)(xue)和(he)產業(ye)(ye)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)學(xue)(xue)(xue)。1845年法國(guo)科(ke)學(xue)(xue)(xue)家M．A．安(an)培(pei)曾經(jing)(jing)設想(xiang)建(jian)立(li)(li)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)國(guo)家的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)科(ke)學(xue)(xue)(xue)，有(you)人認(ren)為(wei)這(zhe)是(shi)(shi)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)學(xue)(xue)(xue)產生(sheng)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)胚(pei)胎，再有(you)“行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)學(xue)(xue)(xue)”一詞是(shi)(shi)由(you)(you)德(de)國(guo)學(xue)(xue)(xue)者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)斯坦(tan)因首(shou)次提出的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)，他(ta)(ta)于1865年至(zhi)1868年發(fa)表七卷本(ben)(ben)《行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)學(xue)(xue)(xue)》著作(zuo)，他(ta)(ta)們(men)都是(shi)(shi)先(xian)于威(wei)爾(er)遜(xun)對行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)學(xue)(xue)(xue)進行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)研(yan)究的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)，所以筆者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)認(ren)為(wei)與(yu)(yu)其(qi)說(shuo)威(wei)爾(er)遜(xun)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)《行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)學(xue)(xue)(xue)研(yan)究》是(shi)(shi)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)學(xue)(xue)(xue)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)開(kai)山(shan)之作(zuo)，倒不(bu)(bu)(bu)如說(shuo)其(qi)是(shi)(shi)確(que)(que)立(li)(li)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)現(xian)代(dai)性(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)開(kai)山(shan)之作(zuo)。他(ta)(ta)在(zai)(zai)(zai)論文中(zhong)明(ming)確(que)(que)表達了(le)“行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)是(shi)(shi)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)府(fu)工(gong)(gong)(gong)作(zuo)中(zhong)極(ji)為(wei)顯著的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)一部(bu)分，它就(jiu)是(shi)(shi)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)動(dong)中(zhong)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)府(fu);它就(jiu)是(shi)(shi)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)府(fu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)執行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)，政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)府(fu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)操作(zuo)。”把行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)看作(zuo)是(shi)(shi)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)府(fu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)執行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)操作(zuo)，就(jiu)是(shi)(shi)將行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)視為(wei)是(shi)(shi)一種(zhong)可(ke)以完(wan)(wan)成政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)府(fu)目(mu)標的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)工(gong)(gong)(gong)具(ju)。他(ta)(ta)將政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)府(fu)活動(dong)區分為(wei)以價(jia)值理(li)(li)(li)(li)性(xing)(xing)為(wei)內(nei)(nei)容的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)治(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)與(yu)(yu)以工(gong)(gong)(gong)具(ju)理(li)(li)(li)(li)性(xing)(xing)為(wei)內(nei)(nei)容行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)，導(dao)致(zhi)(zhi)了(le)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)治(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)與(yu)(yu)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)以及(ji)價(jia)值理(li)(li)(li)(li)性(xing)(xing)與(yu)(yu)工(gong)(gong)(gong)具(ju)理(li)(li)(li)(li)性(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)二元對立(li)(li)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)局面。“行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)領域是(shi)(shi)一種(zhong)事務性(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)領域。行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)作(zuo)為(wei)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)治(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)生(sheng)活的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)一個組成部(bu)分，僅(jin)(jin)僅(jin)(jin)與(yu)(yu)企(qi)(qi)業(ye)(ye)辦公室所采用的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)工(gong)(gong)(gong)作(zuo)方法是(shi)(shi)社(she)會(hui)生(sheng)活的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)一部(bu)分一模一樣(yang)，僅(jin)(jin)僅(jin)(jin)與(yu)(yu)機器是(shi)(shi)制造品的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)一部(bu)分一模一樣(yang)。”威(wei)爾(er)遜(xun)將行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)完(wan)(wan)全看成了(le)一種(zhong)實現(xian)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)府(fu)目(mu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)工(gong)(gong)(gong)具(ju)性(xing)(xing)存在(zai)(zai)(zai)，只按(an)照命(ming)令去做命(ming)令要(yao)(yao)求的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)事情，目(mu)標的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)正(zheng)確(que)(que)與(yu)(yu)否完(wan)(wan)全不(bu)(bu)(bu)在(zai)(zai)(zai)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)考慮(lv)范圍之內(nei)(nei)，由(you)(you)此(ci)確(que)(que)立(li)(li)了(le)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)現(xian)代(dai)性(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)根基。

二、行政現代性融入期

行(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)現代(dai)(dai)性(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)融(rong)(rong)入期(qi)是(shi)(shi)(shi)在(zai)進步時(shi)(shi)代(dai)(dai)，伴隨著(zhu)資本主(zhu)義的(de)(de)(de)(de)發展以(yi)及政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)府規模的(de)(de)(de)(de)不(bu)斷擴(kuo)(kuo)大(da)，社會(hui)各處(chu)充滿了改革之(zhi)風，在(zai)威爾(er)遜(xun)確立了行(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)學(xue)(xue)(xue)(xue)的(de)(de)(de)(de)工(gong)(gong)(gong)具理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)性(xing)(xing)之(zhi)后并(bing)未產生(sheng)(sheng)很大(da)的(de)(de)(de)(de)影(ying)響，甚至當(dang)時(shi)(shi)在(zai)研(yan)(yan)究政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)府管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)的(de)(de)(de)(de)各界學(xue)(xue)(xue)(xue)者都沒(mei)有(you)(you)對(dui)《行(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)學(xue)(xue)(xue)(xue)研(yan)(yan)究》這(zhe)篇文(wen)(wen)(wen)章的(de)(de)(de)(de)內(nei)容有(you)(you)太多(duo)(duo)的(de)(de)(de)(de)引用與(yu)借(jie)鑒(jian)。當(dang)時(shi)(shi)，人(ren)(ren)(ren)們把(ba)注意(yi)力都放(fang)在(zai)了工(gong)(gong)(gong)廠(chang)(chang)企(qi)業(ye)的(de)(de)(de)(de)有(you)(you)效管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)方(fang)(fang)式(shi)上，最有(you)(you)影(ying)響力的(de)(de)(de)(de)是(shi)(shi)(shi)科(ke)(ke)(ke)(ke)學(xue)(xue)(xue)(xue)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)運(yun)(yun)動(dong)，科(ke)(ke)(ke)(ke)學(xue)(xue)(xue)(xue)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)運(yun)(yun)動(dong)對(dui)當(dang)時(shi)(shi)的(de)(de)(de)(de)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)府改革運(yun)(yun)動(dong)產生(sheng)(sheng)了很大(da)影(ying)響，政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)府全面借(jie)鑒(jian)了科(ke)(ke)(ke)(ke)學(xue)(xue)(xue)(xue)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)的(de)(de)(de)(de)主(zhu)要(yao)思想與(yu)措施，并(bing)十分(fen)崇(chong)尚這(zhe)種管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)方(fang)(fang)法(fa)(fa)所帶來(lai)的(de)(de)(de)(de)效率(lv)革命。但(dan)(dan)令人(ren)(ren)(ren)驚訝的(de)(de)(de)(de)是(shi)(shi)(shi)，雖(sui)然(ran)當(dang)時(shi)(shi)的(de)(de)(de)(de)學(xue)(xue)(xue)(xue)者沒(mei)有(you)(you)太多(duo)(duo)的(de)(de)(de)(de)關注威爾(er)遜(xun)那(nei)第一(yi)聲(sheng)的(de)(de)(de)(de)吶喊，但(dan)(dan)是(shi)(shi)(shi)對(dui)科(ke)(ke)(ke)(ke)學(xue)(xue)(xue)(xue)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)運(yun)(yun)動(dong)借(jie)鑒(jian)同樣也(ye)確立了行(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)的(de)(de)(de)(de)工(gong)(gong)(gong)具或技(ji)術理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)性(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)含(han)義，科(ke)(ke)(ke)(ke)學(xue)(xue)(xue)(xue)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)運(yun)(yun)動(dong)主(zhu)張管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)的(de)(de)(de)(de)中(zhong)(zhong)心問題(ti)是(shi)(shi)(shi)提(ti)(ti)高勞(lao)動(dong)生(sheng)(sheng)產率(lv)，科(ke)(ke)(ke)(ke)學(xue)(xue)(xue)(xue)的(de)(de)(de)(de)挑選一(yi)流(liu)工(gong)(gong)(gong)人(ren)(ren)(ren)，工(gong)(gong)(gong)人(ren)(ren)(ren)要(yao)掌(zhang)握標(biao)準化的(de)(de)(de)(de)操作方(fang)(fang)法(fa)(fa)，使用標(biao)準化的(de)(de)(de)(de)工(gong)(gong)(gong)具、機器和材料(liao)，并(bing)使作業(ye)環境標(biao)準化，將(jiang)計劃職(zhi)能(neng)(neng)同執行(xing)職(zhi)能(neng)(neng)分(fen)開(kai)，摒棄原(yuan)來(lai)的(de)(de)(de)(de)經(jing)驗工(gong)(gong)(gong)作法(fa)(fa)，采(cai)取科(ke)(ke)(ke)(ke)學(xue)(xue)(xue)(xue)工(gong)(gong)(gong)作法(fa)(fa)，一(yi)切管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)事務(wu)都要(yao)按(an)照標(biao)準程(cheng)序執行(xing)。雖(sui)然(ran)科(ke)(ke)(ke)(ke)學(xue)(xue)(xue)(xue)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)是(shi)(shi)(shi)以(yi)工(gong)(gong)(gong)廠(chang)(chang)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)合理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)化為(wei)目(mu)標(biao)而富有(you)(you)實(shi)踐(jian)性(xing)(xing)，但(dan)(dan)還是(shi)(shi)(shi)缺(que)乏一(yi)般科(ke)(ke)(ke)(ke)學(xue)(xue)(xue)(xue)性(xing)(xing)，由此(ci)(ci)在(zai)深受科(ke)(ke)(ke)(ke)學(xue)(xue)(xue)(xue)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)運(yun)(yun)動(dong)的(de)(de)(de)(de)影(ying)響下，人(ren)(ren)(ren)們沿(yan)著(zhu)這(zhe)條(tiao)主(zhu)線開(kai)始對(dui)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)內(nei)容進行(xing)修正(zheng)與(yu)補充，其中(zhong)(zhong)最著(zhu)名的(de)(de)(de)(de)是(shi)(shi)(shi)法(fa)(fa)約(yue)爾(er)，他從實(shi)施管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)教(jiao)育的(de)(de)(de)(de)目(mu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)出(chu)發，理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)論(lun)富有(you)(you)原(yuan)則(ze)(ze)性(xing)(xing)。在(zai)法(fa)(fa)約(yue)爾(er)看來(lai)，當(dang)時(shi)(shi)缺(que)乏管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)教(jiao)育，其原(yuan)因在(zai)于(yu)缺(que)少管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)論(lun)。每一(yi)個(ge)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)人(ren)(ren)(ren)員都按(an)照他自己(ji)的(de)(de)(de)(de)方(fang)(fang)法(fa)(fa)、原(yuan)則(ze)(ze)和想法(fa)(fa)來(lai)行(xing)事，而沒(mei)有(you)(you)一(yi)個(ge)人(ren)(ren)(ren)把(ba)可以(yi)為(wei)大(da)家(jia)所接(jie)受的(de)(de)(de)(de)經(jing)驗教(jiao)訓概括(kuo)成(cheng)為(wei)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)論(lun)。如果(guo)存在(zai)一(yi)種得到(dao)公(gong)認的(de)(de)(de)(de)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)論(lun)，即已為(wei)普遍的(de)(de)(de)(de)經(jing)驗所檢(jian)驗過的(de)(de)(de)(de)一(yi)套原(yuan)則(ze)(ze)、規則(ze)(ze)、方(fang)(fang)法(fa)(fa)和程(cheng)序，那(nei)么情況(kuang)就會(hui)完全不(bu)同了。基(ji)于(yu)這(zhe)些(xie)構想，他提(ti)(ti)出(chu)了著(zhu)名的(de)(de)(de)(de)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)五要(yao)素(su)和十四條(tiao)原(yuan)則(ze)(ze)，為(wei)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)學(xue)(xue)(xue)(xue)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)論(lun)的(de)(de)(de)(de)發展又(you)向前推(tui)進了一(yi)步。當(dang)時(shi)(shi)的(de)(de)(de)(de)工(gong)(gong)(gong)廠(chang)(chang)企(qi)業(ye)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)將(jiang)科(ke)(ke)(ke)(ke)學(xue)(xue)(xue)(xue)與(yu)技(ji)術看作是(shi)(shi)(shi)實(shi)現效率(lv)目(mu)標(biao)的(de)(de)(de)(de)核心，并(bing)致力于(yu)科(ke)(ke)(ke)(ke)學(xue)(xue)(xue)(xue)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)與(yu)技(ji)術崇(chong)拜(bai)，將(jiang)現代(dai)(dai)性(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)整體(ti)文(wen)(wen)(wen)化特點體(ti)現的(de)(de)(de)(de)淋漓盡致。隨后是(shi)(shi)(shi)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)府行(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)對(dui)工(gong)(gong)(gong)廠(chang)(chang)企(qi)業(ye)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)的(de)(de)(de)(de)借(jie)鑒(jian)，隨著(zhu)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)府行(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)職(zhi)能(neng)(neng)的(de)(de)(de)(de)日(ri)益擴(kuo)(kuo)大(da)，行(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)涉及的(de)(de)(de)(de)部門越來(lai)越多(duo)(duo)，包括(kuo)經(jing)濟、稅(shui)收、交通運(yun)(yun)輸、教(jiao)育、郵政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)、福利、公(gong)共事業(ye)等各個(ge)方(fang)(fang)面，行(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)人(ren)(ren)(ren)員的(de)(de)(de)(de)隊伍也(ye)在(zai)不(bu)斷壯大(da)，因此(ci)(ci)就需要(yao)科(ke)(ke)(ke)(ke)學(xue)(xue)(xue)(xue)的(de)(de)(de)(de)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)論(lun)來(lai)指導國家(jia)的(de)(de)(de)(de)行(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)活動(dong)，提(ti)(ti)高政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)府工(gong)(gong)(gong)作效率(lv)，解決的(de)(de)(de)(de)辦法(fa)(fa)只有(you)(you)借(jie)鑒(jian)已經(jing)相(xiang)對(dui)成(cheng)熟的(de)(de)(de)(de)工(gong)(gong)(gong)廠(chang)(chang)企(qi)業(ye)的(de)(de)(de)(de)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)方(fang)(fang)法(fa)(fa)，政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)府行(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)借(jie)鑒(jian)了當(dang)時(shi)(shi)工(gong)(gong)(gong)廠(chang)(chang)企(qi)業(ye)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)的(de)(de)(de)(de)科(ke)(ke)(ke)(ke)學(xue)(xue)(xue)(xue)方(fang)(fang)法(fa)(fa)與(yu)原(yuan)則(ze)(ze)，成(cheng)功(gong)地將(jiang)現代(dai)(dai)性(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)文(wen)(wen)(wen)化特點融(rong)(rong)入到(dao)行(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)領(ling)域(yu)，自此(ci)(ci)，行(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)管(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)領(ling)域(yu)真正(zheng)表現出(chu)了現代(dai)(dai)性(xing)(xing)特征。

三、行政現代性發展期

行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)現(xian)(xian)代(dai)(dai)(dai)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)發(fa)展(zhan)(zhan)期處于(yu)20世紀(ji)30年代(dai)(dai)(dai)至(zhi)40年代(dai)(dai)(dai)，正是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)個(ge)(ge)(ge)普(pu)遍追求行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)原(yuan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)時期。公(gong)(gong)共行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)領(ling)域(yu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)研(yan)(yan)(yan)究(jiu)(jiu)者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)與(yu)(yu)實踐者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)致力于(yu)探索理(li)(li)(li)(li)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)組(zu)(zu)(zu)織(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)模(mo)式(shi)與(yu)(yu)科(ke)學(xue)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)方(fang)(fang)式(shi)方(fang)(fang)法(fa)，是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)個(ge)(ge)(ge)將(jiang)(jiang)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)管(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)徹底模(mo)式(shi)化(hua)(hua)(hua)與(yu)(yu)物化(hua)(hua)(hua)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)過程(cheng)(cheng)。首先，最(zui)(zui)(zui)(zui)有(you)說服(fu)力的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)就(jiu)(jiu)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)理(li)(li)(li)(li)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)官(guan)(guan)僚(liao)(liao)(liao)制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)模(mo)式(shi)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)確(que)立與(yu)(yu)完(wan)善(shan)，雖然(ran)官(guan)(guan)僚(liao)(liao)(liao)制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)雛形(xing)(xing)形(xing)(xing)成(cheng)于(yu)古老的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)東方(fang)(fang)，可(ke)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)得到(dao)理(li)(li)(li)(li)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)發(fa)展(zhan)(zhan)卻(que)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)在(zai)(zai)西方(fang)(fang)，可(ke)以(yi)(yi)說是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)西方(fang)(fang)資本(ben)主(zhu)義的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)長足發(fa)展(zhan)(zhan)導致權(quan)(quan)力結(jie)構運行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)合理(li)(li)(li)(li)合法(fa)化(hua)(hua)(hua)，而(er)這(zhe)種(zhong)合理(li)(li)(li)(li)合法(fa)化(hua)(hua)(hua)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)權(quan)(quan)力就(jiu)(jiu)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)形(xing)(xing)成(cheng)理(li)(li)(li)(li)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)官(guan)(guan)僚(liao)(liao)(liao)制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)模(mo)式(shi)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)關(guan)鍵原(yuan)因(yin)。理(li)(li)(li)(li)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)官(guan)(guan)僚(liao)(liao)(liao)制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)模(mo)式(shi)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)現(xian)(xian)代(dai)(dai)(dai)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)個(ge)(ge)(ge)具體體現(xian)(xian)，并且(qie)將(jiang)(jiang)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)現(xian)(xian)代(dai)(dai)(dai)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)發(fa)展(zhan)(zhan)到(dao)了(le)(le)(le)最(zui)(zui)(zui)(zui)完(wan)美的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)程(cheng)(cheng)度，它(ta)完(wan)全將(jiang)(jiang)價值理(li)(li)(li)(li)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)分(fen)離出去，無(wu)論是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)官(guan)(guan)僚(liao)(liao)(liao)體系(xi)內(nei)部的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)程(cheng)(cheng)序設置，還是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)具體工(gong)作崗位上(shang)(shang)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)職員(yuan)，都不(bu)具備價值判(pan)斷的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)機會(hui)。理(li)(li)(li)(li)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)官(guan)(guan)僚(liao)(liao)(liao)制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)主(zhu)要(yao)特(te)征表現(xian)(xian)為:明(ming)確(que)劃分(fen)每一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)個(ge)(ge)(ge)組(zu)(zu)(zu)織(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)成(cheng)員(yuan)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)職責權(quan)(quan)限并以(yi)(yi)法(fa)規的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)形(xing)(xing)式(shi)嚴格(ge)固(gu)定(ding)這(zhe)種(zhong)分(fen)工(gong);官(guan)(guan)僚(liao)(liao)(liao)制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)組(zu)(zu)(zu)織(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)個(ge)(ge)(ge)等(deng)(deng)(deng)級(ji)(ji)實體，具有(you)等(deng)(deng)(deng)級(ji)(ji)與(yu)(yu)權(quan)(quan)力一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)致的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)特(te)征，在(zai)(zai)這(zhe)樣(yang)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)個(ge)(ge)(ge)等(deng)(deng)(deng)級(ji)(ji)實體中(zhong)，將(jiang)(jiang)各種(zhong)公(gong)(gong)職或職位按權(quan)(quan)力等(deng)(deng)(deng)級(ji)(ji)組(zu)(zu)(zu)織(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)起來，形(xing)(xing)成(cheng)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)個(ge)(ge)(ge)指揮(hui)統一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)指揮(hui)鏈(lian)條，沿著(zhu)自(zi)上(shang)(shang)而(er)下的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)等(deng)(deng)(deng)級(ji)(ji)制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)，由最(zui)(zui)(zui)(zui)高層(ceng)級(ji)(ji)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)組(zu)(zu)(zu)織(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)指揮(hui)控制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)下一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)層(ceng)級(ji)(ji)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)組(zu)(zu)(zu)織(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)直(zhi)至(zhi)最(zui)(zui)(zui)(zui)基層(ceng)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)組(zu)(zu)(zu)織(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)，于(yu)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)變形(xing)(xing)成(cheng)官(guan)(guan)僚(liao)(liao)(liao)制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)中(zhong)層(ceng)級(ji)(ji)節制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)權(quan)(quan)力體系(xi);官(guan)(guan)僚(liao)(liao)(liao)制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)組(zu)(zu)(zu)織(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)要(yao)制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)定(ding)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)整套規則(ze)和(he)(he)(he)程(cheng)(cheng)序來規范(fan)組(zu)(zu)(zu)織(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)及其成(cheng)員(yuan)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)管(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)為;形(xing)(xing)成(cheng)正規的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)決策文書;組(zu)(zu)(zu)織(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)管(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)非(fei)人(ren)格(ge)化(hua)(hua)(hua);適應工(gong)作需要(yao)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)專(zhuan)業(ye)培訓(xun)機制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi);合理(li)(li)(li)(li)合法(fa)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)人(ren)事行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)度。從技術理(li)(li)(li)(li)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)觀點來看(kan)，這(zhe)種(zhong)純粹的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)官(guan)(guan)僚(liao)(liao)(liao)集權(quan)(quan)式(shi)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)組(zu)(zu)(zu)織(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)能夠最(zui)(zui)(zui)(zui)大限度地發(fa)揮(hui)效率的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)，因(yin)此這(zhe)種(zhong)組(zu)(zu)(zu)織(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)對(dui)(dui)人(ren)進(jin)(jin)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)絕(jue)對(dui)(dui)必要(yao)控制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)最(zui)(zui)(zui)(zui)合理(li)(li)(li)(li)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)手段，在(zai)(zai)精(jing)(jing)確(que)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)、穩定(ding)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)、嚴格(ge)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)紀(ji)律(lv)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)和(he)(he)(he)可(ke)靠性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)等(deng)(deng)(deng)方(fang)(fang)面都是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)優(you)越的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)，它(ta)能夠正式(shi)地應用(yong)于(yu)各種(zhong)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)管(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)任(ren)務中(zhong)。后來的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)學(xue)者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)對(dui)(dui)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)現(xian)(xian)代(dai)(dai)(dai)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)進(jin)(jin)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)步發(fa)展(zhan)(zhan)作了(le)(le)(le)不(bu)朽(xiu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)貢(gong)(gong)獻(xian)，對(dui)(dui)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)學(xue)發(fa)展(zhan)(zhan)成(cheng)為一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)門獨立學(xue)科(ke)起了(le)(le)(le)重要(yao)作用(yong)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)美國第一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)本(ben)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)學(xue)教科(ke)書的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)作者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)懷特(te)，他將(jiang)(jiang)研(yan)(yan)(yan)究(jiu)(jiu)重點轉向了(le)(le)(le)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)管(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)內(nei)部，轉向技術性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)細節，使行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)科(ke)學(xue)成(cheng)為系(xi)統化(hua)(hua)(hua)理(li)(li)(li)(li)論化(hua)(hua)(hua)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)知識(shi)體系(xi)。在(zai)(zai)對(dui)(dui)公(gong)(gong)共行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)進(jin)(jin)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)了(le)(le)(le)綜(zong)合研(yan)(yan)(yan)究(jiu)(jiu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)學(xue)者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)古利克(ke)(ke)看(kan)來，“通過科(ke)學(xue)和(he)(he)(he)科(ke)學(xue)精(jing)(jing)神，人(ren)類擺脫了(le)(le)(le)，至(zhi)少(shao)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)在(zai)(zai)物質(zhi)生活方(fang)(fang)面擺脫了(le)(le)(le)習慣的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)完(wan)全控制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)。”就(jiu)(jiu)公(gong)(gong)共行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)而(er)言，古利克(ke)(ke)把(ba)科(ke)學(xue)方(fang)(fang)法(fa)視為“以(yi)(yi)能力取(qu)代(dai)(dai)(dai)無(wu)知、以(yi)(yi)專(zhuan)業(ye)人(ren)員(yuan)取(qu)代(dai)(dai)(dai)非(fei)專(zhuan)業(ye)人(ren)員(yuan)、以(yi)(yi)專(zhuan)家取(qu)代(dai)(dai)(dai)雜而(er)不(bu)精(jing)(jing)者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)、以(yi)(yi)日益(yi)加(jia)劇的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)分(fen)化(hua)(hua)(hua)和(he)(he)(he)專(zhuan)門化(hua)(hua)(hua)取(qu)代(dai)(dai)(dai)華而(er)不(bu)實、以(yi)(yi)素(su)有(you)訓(xun)練的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)人(ren)員(yuan)取(qu)代(dai)(dai)(dai)訓(xun)練無(wu)素(su)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)新手”的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)種(zhong)途徑。對(dui)(dui)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)組(zu)(zu)(zu)織(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)管(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)原(yuan)則(ze)進(jin)(jin)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)了(le)(le)(le)歸納和(he)(he)(he)概括(kuo)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)學(xue)者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)厄(e)威克(ke)(ke)，在(zai)(zai)1937年的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)布朗(lang)婁委(wei)員(yuan)會(hui)以(yi)(yi)及1945年和(he)(he)(he)1950年的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)兩屆(jie)胡佛委(wei)員(yuan)會(hui)等(deng)(deng)(deng)多屆(jie)美國行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)改革委(wei)員(yuan)會(hui)都在(zai)(zai)很大程(cheng)(cheng)度上(shang)(shang)接受了(le)(le)(le)厄(e)威克(ke)(ke)提出的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)組(zu)(zu)(zu)織(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)管(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)原(yuan)則(ze)，正如(ru)著(zhu)名管(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)科(ke)學(xue)家卡斯特(te)和(he)(he)(he)羅森茨韋克(ke)(ke)所說的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)，厄(e)威克(ke)(ke)等(deng)(deng)(deng)人(ren)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)最(zui)(zui)(zui)(zui)基本(ben)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)貢(gong)(gong)獻(xian)之(zhi)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)就(jiu)(jiu)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)強調了(le)(le)(le)這(zhe)樣(yang)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)個(ge)(ge)(ge)主(zhu)張:管(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)值得觀察、研(yan)(yan)(yan)究(jiu)(jiu)和(he)(he)(he)改進(jin)(jin)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)獨特(te)領(ling)域(yu)，從而(er)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)種(zhong)重要(yao)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)科(ke)學(xue)。基于(yu)這(zhe)些理(li)(li)(li)(li)論以(yi)(yi)及實踐者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)研(yan)(yan)(yan)究(jiu)(jiu)者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)探索，終于(yu)將(jiang)(jiang)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)現(xian)(xian)代(dai)(dai)(dai)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)發(fa)展(zhan)(zhan)到(dao)其巔(dian)峰形(xing)(xing)態，公(gong)(gong)共行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)領(ling)域(yu)無(wu)不(bu)體現(xian)(xian)著(zhu)現(xian)(xian)代(dai)(dai)(dai)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)特(te)征，所以(yi)(yi)這(zhe)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)時期成(cheng)為行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)現(xian)(xian)代(dai)(dai)(dai)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)得到(dao)充(chong)分(fen)發(fa)展(zhan)(zhan)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)時期。

一、人事行政(zheng)管(guan)理重(zhong)要性(xing)分析。

一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)名大學生剛參加工作(zuo)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)時(shi)候，從報(bao)到第一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)天人(ren)(ren)事行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)管(guan)(guan)理(li)就開始(shi)了，將(jiang)伴(ban)隨我們工作(zuo)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)每一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)天。要進(jin)入到這個(ge)單(dan)(dan)(dan)位(wei)(wei)首(shou)先在(zai)人(ren)(ren)事部門(men)辦理(li)入職，然后在(zai)培訓部門(men)進(jin)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)崗位(wei)(wei)培訓，進(jin)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)崗位(wei)(wei)實習以及(ji)實習鑒(jian)定，直至進(jin)入到新(xin)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)崗位(wei)(wei)成(cheng)為正式員工。這一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)系(xi)(xi)列的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)規(gui)章制度和辦事實施都是(shi)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)個(ge)單(dan)(dan)(dan)位(wei)(wei)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)人(ren)(ren)事行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)管(guan)(guan)理(li)流程。無論是(shi)企業還是(shi)事業單(dan)(dan)(dan)位(wei)(wei)，多年(nian)來的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)企業文(wen)化(hua)積淀形成(cheng)該企業的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)個(ge)獨(du)特(te)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)人(ren)(ren)事行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)管(guan)(guan)理(li)特(te)色。對于(yu)有積淀的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)企業來說拿(na)出公(gong)司制度章程也是(shi)厚(hou)厚(hou)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)本，在(zai)公(gong)司制度里(li)詳細的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)記錄了人(ren)(ren)事行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)管(guan)(guan)理(li)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)各(ge)個(ge)環(huan)節，企業在(zai)經營(ying)活動中人(ren)(ren)事行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)管(guan)(guan)理(li)是(shi)主線(xian)。人(ren)(ren)事行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)管(guan)(guan)理(li)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)優劣可以反映(ying)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)個(ge)單(dan)(dan)(dan)位(wei)(wei)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)團隊戰斗力和精神面貌，對企業的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)目(mu)標效(xiao)益(yi)完成(cheng)非常重要。如今有很多軟件公(gong)司也將(jiang)人(ren)(ren)事行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)管(guan)(guan)理(li)進(jin)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)詳細的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)需求分析設計(ji)，制作(zuo)相應(ying)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)管(guan)(guan)理(li)軟件在(zai)網絡平臺上按信息(xi)化(hua)模(mo)式來運作(zuo)。有些信息(xi)化(hua)先進(jin)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)公(gong)司也利用網絡信息(xi)系(xi)(xi)統進(jin)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)人(ren)(ren)事行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)管(guan)(guan)理(li)。

二、關于思想政治工作探究。

思(si)(si)政(zheng)工(gong)(gong)(gong)作(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)還有一種(zhong)說(shuo)法叫做思(si)(si)想(xiang)(xiang)(xiang)教(jiao)(jiao)育，在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)很多(duo)(duo)學(xue)校和事(shi)(shi)業(ye)(ye)單(dan)位(wei)都有政(zheng)工(gong)(gong)(gong)干(gan)部(bu)(bu)(bu)，大(da)(da)學(xue)里的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)輔導員就(jiu)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)從事(shi)(shi)思(si)(si)想(xiang)(xiang)(xiang)教(jiao)(jiao)育。這些干(gan)部(bu)(bu)(bu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)職能(neng)(neng)就(jiu)是(shi)(shi)保證干(gan)部(bu)(bu)(bu)隊伍(wu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)思(si)(si)想(xiang)(xiang)(xiang)高度(du)統一，保持(chi)思(si)(si)想(xiang)(xiang)(xiang)走向(xiang)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)正確(que)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)方向(xiang)。回顧(gu)中國(guo)共產黨(dang)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)發(fa)展(zhan)歷史，思(si)(si)政(zheng)工(gong)(gong)(gong)作(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)各個時(shi)期都對(dui)黨(dang)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)隊伍(wu)發(fa)展(zhan)壯大(da)(da)以及取得全國(guo)勝利(li)(li)起(qi)到(dao)非常重(zhong)要的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)作(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)用(yong)。思(si)(si)政(zheng)工(gong)(gong)(gong)作(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)對(dui)黨(dang)員干(gan)部(bu)(bu)(bu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)世界觀(guan)、人(ren)生觀(guan)、道德觀(guan)起(qi)決定(ding)性的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)作(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)用(yong)。在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)延安時(shi)期紅軍(jun)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)黨(dang)政(zheng)大(da)(da)學(xue)就(jiu)起(qi)到(dao)了(le)教(jiao)(jiao)育全黨(dang)向(xiang)正確(que)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)方向(xiang)前進。企(qi)(qi)(qi)(qi)事(shi)(shi)業(ye)(ye)單(dan)位(wei)都是(shi)(shi)有目標的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)，各階段都會(hui)(hui)有規劃和計劃。和國(guo)家制定(ding)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)遠近期目標一樣(yang)，企(qi)(qi)(qi)(qi)業(ye)(ye)也(ye)有十年(nian)規劃和五年(nian)計劃。為(wei)(wei)了(le)實現該企(qi)(qi)(qi)(qi)事(shi)(shi)業(ye)(ye)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)目標（該單(dan)位(wei)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)核心(xin)價值(zhi)觀(guan)）必(bi)須重(zhong)視本單(dan)位(wei)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)思(si)(si)想(xiang)(xiang)(xiang)政(zheng)治教(jiao)(jiao)育，能(neng)(neng)夠(gou)有效合理(li)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)把(ba)(ba)握(wo)(wo)主(zhu)流骨干(gan)員工(gong)(gong)(gong)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)思(si)(si)想(xiang)(xiang)(xiang)導向(xiang)，才能(neng)(neng)把(ba)(ba)握(wo)(wo)企(qi)(qi)(qi)(qi)事(shi)(shi)業(ye)(ye)單(dan)位(wei)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)發(fa)展(zhan)流向(xiang)，能(neng)(neng)夠(gou)把(ba)(ba)企(qi)(qi)(qi)(qi)業(ye)(ye)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)近遠期目的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)達到(dao)。在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)我國(guo)事(shi)(shi)業(ye)(ye)單(dan)位(wei)和企(qi)(qi)(qi)(qi)業(ye)(ye)區別很大(da)(da)，事(shi)(shi)業(ye)(ye)單(dan)位(wei)公益性更強。作(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)為(wei)(wei)社(she)會(hui)(hui)主(zhu)體事(shi)(shi)業(ye)(ye)單(dan)位(wei)不是(shi)(shi)以追(zhui)逐利(li)(li)益最大(da)(da)化(hua)為(wei)(wei)目標的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)，其(qi)核心(xin)價值(zhi)是(shi)(shi)為(wei)(wei)社(she)會(hui)(hui)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)公益、福利(li)(li)、衛生、科學(xue)教(jiao)(jiao)育方面提供給人(ren)們(men)貼心(xin)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)服務。如(ru)醫院(yuan)、學(xue)校、社(she)會(hui)(hui)團體很多(duo)(duo)都是(shi)(shi)事(shi)(shi)業(ye)(ye)單(dan)位(wei)。企(qi)(qi)(qi)(qi)業(ye)(ye)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)商品經濟主(zhu)流社(she)會(hui)(hui)有很多(duo)(duo)種(zhong)形態(tai)，既(ji)有大(da)(da)小不一的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)民營企(qi)(qi)(qi)(qi)業(ye)(ye)也(ye)有國(guo)民經濟支柱(zhu)性企(qi)(qi)(qi)(qi)業(ye)(ye)，企(qi)(qi)(qi)(qi)業(ye)(ye)是(shi)(shi)自(zi)(zi)主(zhu)經營的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)社(she)會(hui)(hui)主(zhu)體，以盈利(li)(li)為(wei)(wei)目的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)，自(zi)(zi)負盈虧。如(ru)國(guo)家電力、中國(guo)移動、自(zi)(zi)來(lai)水公司等等都是(shi)(shi)大(da)(da)型(xing)企(qi)(qi)(qi)(qi)業(ye)(ye)。思(si)(si)想(xiang)(xiang)(xiang)政(zheng)治工(gong)(gong)(gong)作(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)還包括思(si)(si)想(xiang)(xiang)(xiang)政(zheng)治教(jiao)(jiao)育，這是(shi)(shi)規范社(she)會(hui)(hui)行為(wei)(wei)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)一種(zhong)必(bi)要的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)工(gong)(gong)(gong)作(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)。在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)社(she)區或(huo)鄉村的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)黨(dang)支部(bu)(bu)(bu)，思(si)(si)政(zheng)工(gong)(gong)(gong)作(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)也(ye)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)發(fa)揮作(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)用(yong)。思(si)(si)政(zheng)工(gong)(gong)(gong)作(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)是(shi)(shi)有內涵的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)，他(ta)是(shi)(shi)現代(dai)企(qi)(qi)(qi)(qi)業(ye)(ye)管理(li)不可(ke)或(huo)缺的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)內容。企(qi)(qi)(qi)(qi)業(ye)(ye)思(si)(si)政(zheng)工(gong)(gong)(gong)作(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)伴(ban)隨企(qi)(qi)(qi)(qi)業(ye)(ye)成(cheng)長不斷進行完(wan)善(shan)，方式方法也(ye)多(duo)(duo)種(zhong)多(duo)(duo)樣(yang)，思(si)(si)政(zheng)工(gong)(gong)(gong)作(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)是(shi)(shi)以人(ren)為(wei)(wei)本，為(wei)(wei)職工(gong)(gong)(gong)排憂解難，是(shi)(shi)企(qi)(qi)(qi)(qi)業(ye)(ye)發(fa)展(zhan)壯大(da)(da)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)基礎。

三、事業單位思政工作的(de)重要性分(fen)析(xi)。

1.把服(fu)(fu)務職責放(fang)在首位(wei)，不脫(tuo)離社會實踐，把思政工作的說服(fu)(fu)力(li)提高。

摘要(yao)：立(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)評(ping)估(gu)(gu)主(zhu)(zhu)體(ti)制(zhi)度的優劣直接(jie)關系(xi)到立(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)評(ping)估(gu)(gu)的效果(guo)，而目前我國的地(di)方行政(zheng)立(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)后評(ping)估(gu)(gu)主(zhu)(zhu)體(ti)制(zhi)度仍存在著民(min)主(zhu)(zhu)性不足、監督機制(zhi)不健全等缺陷(xian)，嚴重(zhong)地(di)影響了評(ping)估(gu)(gu)的效果(guo)。因此，有必(bi)要(yao)構建(jian)人(ren)大主(zhu)(zhu)導或(huo)上級政(zheng)府主(zhu)(zhu)導下的公眾參與(yu)(yu)評(ping)估(gu)(gu)主(zhu)(zhu)體(ti)制(zhi)度模式，充(chong)分重(zhong)視利害(hai)關系(xi)人(ren)的參與(yu)(yu)權，建(jian)立(li)(li)長(chang)效的專(zhuan)家參與(yu)(yu)機制(zhi)，同時積極培育(yu)獨立(li)(li)的第三(san)方評(ping)估(gu)(gu)機構作為補(bu)充(chong)。

關(guan)鍵詞：行政立法；立法評(ping)估；評(ping)估標(biao)準；評(ping)估指標(biao)

一、引言

構建(jian)現(xian)代化的(de)(de)(de)(de)治(zhi)理體(ti)系是實(shi)現(xian)基層治(zhi)理法(fa)(fa)(fa)治(zhi)化目標的(de)(de)(de)(de)重要依托，提高(gao)地(di)方(fang)行(xing)政(zheng)立(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)的(de)(de)(de)(de)質量完(wan)善現(xian)代化的(de)(de)(de)(de)治(zhi)理體(ti)系的(de)(de)(de)(de)重要舉措。行(xing)政(zheng)立(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)立(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)后(hou)評估的(de)(de)(de)(de)目的(de)(de)(de)(de)在(zai)于檢驗地(di)方(fang)行(xing)政(zheng)立(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)的(de)(de)(de)(de)理念是否(fou)先進、規范(fan)程(cheng)度(du)(du)高(gao)低(di)和運行(xing)效(xiao)果(guo)好(hao)壞等(deng)，然后(hou)通過完(wan)善立(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)提高(gao)地(di)方(fang)行(xing)政(zheng)立(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)的(de)(de)(de)(de)質量。行(xing)政(zheng)立(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)評估制度(du)(du)是一(yi)項(xiang)復雜的(de)(de)(de)(de)系統工程(cheng)。該項(xiang)制度(du)(du)已(yi)開(kai)展十余載，雖然理論界和實(shi)務界都給(gei)予(yu)了較大的(de)(de)(de)(de)關注，但整體(ti)上還處在(zai)探索(suo)發(fa)展階段，仍存在(zai)諸多問題。因此(ci)，有必(bi)要歸納和分析地(di)方(fang)政(zheng)府立(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)后(hou)評估主(zhu)體(ti)制度(du)(du)存在(zai)的(de)(de)(de)(de)問題，探討解決對(dui)策以促進地(di)方(fang)法(fa)(fa)(fa)治(zhi)社會的(de)(de)(de)(de)建(jian)設。

二、地方行政立法(fa)后(hou)評估主體的界定

(一(yi)(yi)(yi))地(di)(di)(di)(di)方(fang)(fang)(fang)行(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)。地(di)(di)(di)(di)方(fang)(fang)(fang)行(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)在(zai)(zai)不(bu)同的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)語(yu)境下有(you)不(bu)同的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)含義(yi)：一(yi)(yi)(yi)是(shi)從立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)內容而(er)(er)言(yan)，地(di)(di)(di)(di)方(fang)(fang)(fang)行(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)是(shi)指(zhi)關于(yu)行(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)管理(li)方(fang)(fang)(fang)面的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)，既包(bao)括地(di)(di)(di)(di)方(fang)(fang)(fang)各(ge)級(ji)(ji)人(ren)民(min)代表大(da)會(hui)(hui)及(ji)常委(wei)會(hui)(hui)制(zhi)(zhi)定(ding)(ding)(ding)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)行(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)管理(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)律(lv)規(gui)范性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)文件(jian)(jian)(jian)，也包(bao)括地(di)(di)(di)(di)方(fang)(fang)(fang)各(ge)級(ji)(ji)行(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)及(ji)部(bu)門制(zhi)(zhi)定(ding)(ding)(ding)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)行(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)管理(li)類的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)律(lv)規(gui)范性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)文件(jian)(jian)(jian)。二(er)是(shi)從立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)體(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)而(er)(er)言(yan)，地(di)(di)(di)(di)方(fang)(fang)(fang)行(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)是(shi)指(zhi)地(di)(di)(di)(di)方(fang)(fang)(fang)各(ge)級(ji)(ji)行(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)機(ji)(ji)關及(ji)部(bu)門制(zhi)(zhi)定(ding)(ding)(ding)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)各(ge)項(xiang)規(gui)范性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)文件(jian)(jian)(jian)。三(san)(san)是(shi)從制(zhi)(zhi)定(ding)(ding)(ding)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)權(quan)限和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)程(cheng)序而(er)(er)言(yan)，地(di)(di)(di)(di)方(fang)(fang)(fang)行(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)是(shi)指(zhi)有(you)地(di)(di)(di)(di)方(fang)(fang)(fang)各(ge)級(ji)(ji)行(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)機(ji)(ji)關依(yi)(yi)照(zhao)(zhao)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)定(ding)(ding)(ding)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)權(quan)限和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)定(ding)(ding)(ding)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)程(cheng)序制(zhi)(zhi)定(ding)(ding)(ding)各(ge)項(xiang)規(gui)范性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)文件(jian)(jian)(jian)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)活動。第(di)(di)(di)一(yi)(yi)(yi)種(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)概(gai)念(nian)屬(shu)于(yu)實質意義(yi)上(shang)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)行(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)；第(di)(di)(di)二(er)種(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)概(gai)念(nian)屬(shu)于(yu)形(xing)式(shi)意義(yi)上(shang)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)行(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)；第(di)(di)(di)三(san)(san)種(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)概(gai)念(nian)也屬(shu)于(yu)形(xing)式(shi)意義(yi)上(shang)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)，但(dan)以(yi)現行(xing)(xing)(xing)有(you)效(xiao)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)律(lv)規(gui)定(ding)(ding)(ding)(如(ru)(ru)(ru)(ru)《中華(hua)人(ren)民(min)共和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)國立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)》〈以(yi)下簡(jian)稱《立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)》〉、《規(gui)章(zhang)(zhang)制(zhi)(zhi)定(ding)(ding)(ding)程(cheng)序條例》等)作(zuo)(zuo)為(wei)依(yi)(yi)據。依(yi)(yi)據第(di)(di)(di)三(san)(san)種(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)定(ding)(ding)(ding)義(yi)，地(di)(di)(di)(di)方(fang)(fang)(fang)行(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)“法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)”是(shi)指(zhi)省級(ji)(ji)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)府、設(she)區的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)市級(ji)(ji)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)府依(yi)(yi)照(zhao)(zhao)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)定(ding)(ding)(ding)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)程(cheng)序制(zhi)(zhi)定(ding)(ding)(ding)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)規(gui)章(zhang)(zhang)。新修訂的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)《立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)》規(gui)定(ding)(ding)(ding)，地(di)(di)(di)(di)方(fang)(fang)(fang)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)行(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)調整的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)范圍限于(yu)執行(xing)(xing)(xing)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)事(shi)務、地(di)(di)(di)(di)方(fang)(fang)(fang)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)事(shi)務以(yi)及(ji)城鄉(xiang)建設(she)與(yu)(yu)管理(li)、環境保(bao)護、歷(li)史文化保(bao)護等方(fang)(fang)(fang)面的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)事(shi)項(xiang)[1]。(二(er))地(di)(di)(di)(di)方(fang)(fang)(fang)行(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)后評(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)估(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)體(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)。概(gai)括來講，立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)評(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)估(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)體(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)要(yao)包(bao)括這(zhe)幾種(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)類型[2]：一(yi)(yi)(yi)是(shi)決策(ce)(ce)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)體(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)，即作(zuo)(zuo)出立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)后評(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)估(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)決策(ce)(ce)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)組(zu)織(zhi)。二(er)是(shi)組(zu)織(zhi)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)實施(shi)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)體(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)，即立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)評(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)估(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)決策(ce)(ce)后負責組(zu)織(zhi)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)實施(shi)立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)評(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)估(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)活動的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)組(zu)織(zhi)或(huo)(huo)個人(ren)。三(san)(san)是(shi)參與(yu)(yu)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)體(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)，即決策(ce)(ce)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)體(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)、組(zu)織(zhi)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)實施(shi)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)體(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)以(yi)外(wai)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)參與(yu)(yu)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)體(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)，如(ru)(ru)(ru)(ru)行(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)相對人(ren)、專家(jia)、社(she)會(hui)(hui)公(gong)眾、其(qi)他行(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)機(ji)(ji)關、社(she)會(hui)(hui)團體(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)及(ji)其(qi)他組(zu)織(zhi)等。四(si)是(shi)監督主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)體(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)，即對評(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)估(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)實施(shi)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)體(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)提(ti)交的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)評(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)估(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)報告進行(xing)(xing)(xing)審查的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)部(bu)門。關于(yu)立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)評(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)估(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)體(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)選擇(ze)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)確定(ding)(ding)(ding)，學(xue)術界(jie)有(you)不(bu)同的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)觀(guan)(guan)點(dian)：第(di)(di)(di)一(yi)(yi)(yi)種(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)觀(guan)(guan)點(dian)認(ren)為(wei)，立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)評(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)估(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)體(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)只能限于(yu)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)定(ding)(ding)(ding)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)機(ji)(ji)構(gou)，如(ru)(ru)(ru)(ru)立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)機(ji)(ji)關、執法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)機(ji)(ji)關或(huo)(huo)立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)授權(quan)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)機(ji)(ji)構(gou)等；第(di)(di)(di)二(er)種(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)觀(guan)(guan)點(dian)認(ren)為(wei)，立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)評(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)估(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)體(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)包(bao)括法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)定(ding)(ding)(ding)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)機(ji)(ji)構(gou)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)定(ding)(ding)(ding)機(ji)(ji)構(gou)以(yi)外(wai)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)參與(yu)(yu)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)體(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)；第(di)(di)(di)三(san)(san)種(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)觀(guan)(guan)點(dian)認(ren)為(wei)，立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)評(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)估(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)體(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)應(ying)該是(shi)立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)體(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)，如(ru)(ru)(ru)(ru)各(ge)級(ji)(ji)人(ren)大(da)及(ji)其(qi)常委(wei)會(hui)(hui)或(huo)(huo)有(you)立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)權(quan)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)府等。這(zhe)些觀(guan)(guan)點(dian)皆有(you)合(he)(he)理(li)之處，第(di)(di)(di)一(yi)(yi)(yi)種(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)觀(guan)(guan)點(dian)強調評(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)估(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)體(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)定(ding)(ding)(ding)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)，第(di)(di)(di)二(er)種(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)觀(guan)(guan)點(dian)強調評(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)估(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)體(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)多元性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)，第(di)(di)(di)三(san)(san)種(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)觀(guan)(guan)點(dian)強調評(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)估(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)體(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)職權(quan)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)合(he)(he)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)。立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)評(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)估(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)體(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)選擇(ze)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)確定(ding)(ding)(ding)應(ying)當(dang)(dang)遵循職權(quan)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)定(ding)(ding)(ding)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)、程(cheng)序正(zheng)(zheng)當(dang)(dang)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)原則(ze)。依(yi)(yi)照(zhao)(zhao)現代法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)治理(li)論(lun)，國家(jia)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)各(ge)項(xiang)活動都應(ying)當(dang)(dang)依(yi)(yi)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)進行(xing)(xing)(xing)，立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)評(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)估(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)體(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)要(yao)具有(you)合(he)(he)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)權(quan)力(li)來源；如(ru)(ru)(ru)(ru)果沒(mei)有(you)合(he)(he)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)權(quan)力(li)來源，評(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)估(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)工作(zuo)(zuo)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)開(kai)展(zhan)則(ze)缺(que)乏正(zheng)(zheng)當(dang)(dang)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)、合(he)(he)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)，評(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)估(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)結果不(bu)能夠產(chan)生法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)定(ding)(ding)(ding)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)效(xiao)力(li)、效(xiao)果，難(nan)以(yi)被認(ren)可和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)接(jie)受(shou)。同時，評(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)估(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)體(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)身份(fen)要(yao)中立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(“不(bu)做自己的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)官”)，立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)場要(yao)中立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)，能夠站(zhan)在(zai)(zai)客(ke)觀(guan)(guan)中立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)場對評(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)估(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)對象作(zuo)(zuo)出公(gong)正(zheng)(zheng)、客(ke)觀(guan)(guan)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)評(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)價，如(ru)(ru)(ru)(ru)果評(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)估(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)結果的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)好壞和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)評(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)估(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)體(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)存在(zai)(zai)利害關系，如(ru)(ru)(ru)(ru)作(zuo)(zuo)為(wei)衡量政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)績(ji)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)標(biao)準、產(chan)生相應(ying)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)律(lv)責任等，那么評(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)估(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)體(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)作(zuo)(zuo)出的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)評(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)估(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)結果就(jiu)會(hui)(hui)缺(que)乏程(cheng)序的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)正(zheng)(zheng)當(dang)(dang)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)而(er)(er)喪失了客(ke)觀(guan)(guan)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)權(quan)威(wei)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)。因(yin)此，將地(di)(di)(di)(di)方(fang)(fang)(fang)行(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)后評(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)(ping)估(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)體(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)界(jie)定(ding)(ding)(ding)為(wei)地(di)(di)(di)(di)方(fang)(fang)(fang)行(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)立(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)法(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)(fa)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)體(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)同級(ji)(ji)人(ren)大(da)及(ji)其(qi)常委(wei)或(huo)(huo)上(shang)一(yi)(yi)(yi)級(ji)(ji)人(ren)民(min)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)府更為(wei)合(he)(he)適(shi)。

任(ren)何時代的(de)(de)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)都必定(ding)是(shi)在一(yi)(yi)定(ding)的(de)(de)價(jia)(jia)(jia)值(zhi)(zhi)理(li)(li)(li)(li)念的(de)(de)指導和規范下展開的(de)(de)，公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)也不可能“價(jia)(jia)(jia)值(zhi)(zhi)中(zhong)(zhong)立”。那么，當代公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)的(de)(de)價(jia)(jia)(jia)值(zhi)(zhi)理(li)(li)(li)(li)念主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)要有哪些(xie)?西(xi)方(fang)傳統行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)學曾以(yi)“效(xiao)率”為(wei)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)要價(jia)(jia)(jia)值(zhi)(zhi)理(li)(li)(li)(li)念，“新公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)學”強(qiang)調(diao)的(de)(de)“社(she)會(hui)(hui)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)平(ping)(ping)”也是(shi)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)的(de)(de)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)要價(jia)(jia)(jia)值(zhi)(zhi)理(li)(li)(li)(li)念，而“新公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)管理(li)(li)(li)(li)理(li)(li)(li)(li)論”又進一(yi)(yi)步將“公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)性”、“公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)利益”、“民(min)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)”、“法治”等追加為(wei)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)的(de)(de)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)要價(jia)(jia)(jia)值(zhi)(zhi)理(li)(li)(li)(li)念。我國公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)學界近年(nian)來(lai)對公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)價(jia)(jia)(jia)值(zhi)(zhi)理(li)(li)(li)(li)念問(wen)題也頗為(wei)關(guan)注，“中(zhong)(zhong)國行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)管理(li)(li)(li)(li)學會(hui)(hui)”2012年(nian)在湖南湘潭召開的(de)(de)“第八(ba)屆行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)哲學研討會(hui)(hui)”的(de)(de)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)題即(ji)“社(she)會(hui)(hui)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)義(yi)(yi)(yi)核心價(jia)(jia)(jia)值(zhi)(zhi)觀與(yu)行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)價(jia)(jia)(jia)值(zhi)(zhi)”。與(yu)會(hui)(hui)學者中(zhong)(zhong)有人強(qiang)調(diao)“正(zheng)義(yi)(yi)(yi)是(shi)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)應然的(de)(de)、核心的(de)(de)價(jia)(jia)(jia)值(zhi)(zhi)”［1］，“當代公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)倫理(li)(li)(li)(li)基本的(de)(de)價(jia)(jia)(jia)值(zhi)(zhi)理(li)(li)(li)(li)念”有“公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)責(ze)任(ren)、公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)平(ping)(ping)正(zheng)義(yi)(yi)(yi)、公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)效(xiao)率、社(she)會(hui)(hui)和諧、自律寬容等。”［2］這些(xie)認(ren)識和概括無疑揭示(shi)了當代公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)價(jia)(jia)(jia)值(zhi)(zhi)理(li)(li)(li)(li)念的(de)(de)基本內涵，但似乎還(huan)不夠系統完整，解說(shuo)也不夠充分(fen)。筆者認(ren)為(wei)，當代公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)的(de)(de)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)要價(jia)(jia)(jia)值(zhi)(zhi)理(li)(li)(li)(li)念可以(yi)概括為(wei)以(yi)人為(wei)本、公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)利益、公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)平(ping)(ping)正(zheng)義(yi)(yi)(yi)、行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)效(xiao)率、民(min)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)法治等五(wu)個方(fang)面，并(bing)作(zuo)如下說(shuo)明，以(yi)就教于同仁。

一、以人為本

所(suo)(suo)(suo)(suo)(suo)謂以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)本(ben)(ben)(ben)(ben)，即以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)目(mu)(mu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)，以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)原則(ze)和(he)(he)(he)尺度，一(yi)(yi)切決(jue)(jue)(jue)策和(he)(he)(he)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)動(dong)都(dou)以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)尊(zun)(zun)重(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)、善(shan)待人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)、成(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)就(jiu)(jiu)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)前提(ti)。以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)本(ben)(ben)(ben)(ben)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)“人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)”這(zhe)個(ge)概念(nian)(nian)(nian)主要(yao)(yao)是(shi)(shi)(shi)相(xiang)對(dui)(dui)(dui)于(yu)(yu)“神(shen)(shen)(shen)(shen)(shen)”和(he)(he)(he)“物(wu)(wu)”而言的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)，“本(ben)(ben)(ben)(ben)”則(ze)主要(yao)(yao)是(shi)(shi)(shi)相(xiang)對(dui)(dui)(dui)于(yu)(yu)“末”而言的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)。所(suo)(suo)(suo)(suo)(suo)以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)，“以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)本(ben)(ben)(ben)(ben)”也(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)就(jiu)(jiu)是(shi)(shi)(shi)說(shuo)，與“神(shen)(shen)(shen)(shen)(shen)”或(huo)“物(wu)(wu)”相(xiang)比，人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)更(geng)重(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)要(yao)(yao)、更(geng)根本(ben)(ben)(ben)(ben)，不(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)能(neng)本(ben)(ben)(ben)(ben)末倒置(zhi)，不(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)能(neng)舍本(ben)(ben)(ben)(ben)求末。提(ti)出(chu)以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)本(ben)(ben)(ben)(ben)，主要(yao)(yao)是(shi)(shi)(shi)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)了(le)(le)(le)反(fan)對(dui)(dui)(dui)或(huo)防止人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)們(men)在(zai)(zai)決(jue)(jue)(jue)策或(huo)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)動(dong)中(zhong)(zhong)，因(yin)(yin)(yin)(yin)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)“神(shen)(shen)(shen)(shen)(shen)”或(huo)因(yin)(yin)(yin)(yin)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)“物(wu)(wu)”而輕(qing)視(shi)(shi)(shi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)、蔑視(shi)(shi)(shi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)，而將人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)異化(hua)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)工(gong)具(ju)。我(wo)們(men)也(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)進(jin)一(yi)(yi)步強調(diao)，“以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)本(ben)(ben)(ben)(ben)”所(suo)(suo)(suo)(suo)(suo)謂的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)“人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)”，是(shi)(shi)(shi)指(zhi)(zhi)“每一(yi)(yi)個(ge)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)”，而不(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)是(shi)(shi)(shi)指(zhi)(zhi)某個(ge)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)或(huo)少數人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)，不(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)是(shi)(shi)(shi)個(ge)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)主義(yi)(yi)(yi)或(huo)利(li)(li)己主義(yi)(yi)(yi)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)“人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)”;是(shi)(shi)(shi)全(quan)(quan)面(mian)發(fa)展的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)，而不(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)是(shi)(shi)(shi)片面(mian)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)、“單向(xiang)度”的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)。人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)生(sheng)(sheng)存與發(fa)展無(wu)(wu)疑離不(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)開世(shi)(shi)界(jie)(jie)(jie)萬物(wu)(wu)，物(wu)(wu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)有(you)無(wu)(wu)成(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)廢、物(wu)(wu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)存在(zai)(zai)和(he)(he)(he)運動(dong)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)形式常常決(jue)(jue)(jue)定(ding)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)生(sheng)(sheng)死禍(huo)福。因(yin)(yin)(yin)(yin)此，人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)不(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)能(neng)不(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)重(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)視(shi)(shi)(shi)物(wu)(wu)，甚至因(yin)(yin)(yin)(yin)此而崇(chong)(chong)拜(bai)物(wu)(wu)。人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)對(dui)(dui)(dui)物(wu)(wu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)重(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)視(shi)(shi)(shi)乃至于(yu)(yu)一(yi)(yi)定(ding)程度的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)崇(chong)(chong)拜(bai)，都(dou)是(shi)(shi)(shi)正(zheng)常的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)、合理(li)(li)(li)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)。但如果(guo)因(yin)(yin)(yin)(yin)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)對(dui)(dui)(dui)物(wu)(wu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)重(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)視(shi)(shi)(shi)和(he)(he)(he)崇(chong)(chong)拜(bai)而忘卻了(le)(le)(le)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)本(ben)(ben)(ben)(ben)身，而將人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)置(zhi)于(yu)(yu)次(ci)要(yao)(yao)、從屬(shu)、屈服的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)地(di)位，而將人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)完全(quan)(quan)手段化(hua)、工(gong)具(ju)化(hua)，就(jiu)(jiu)不(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)正(zheng)常、不(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)合理(li)(li)(li)了(le)(le)(le)，就(jiu)(jiu)應(ying)(ying)該反(fan)對(dui)(dui)(dui)了(le)(le)(le)，就(jiu)(jiu)應(ying)(ying)該強調(diao)“以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)本(ben)(ben)(ben)(ben)”。這(zhe)也(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)就(jiu)(jiu)是(shi)(shi)(shi)說(shuo)，物(wu)(wu)很重(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)要(yao)(yao)，但在(zai)(zai)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)與物(wu)(wu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)關(guan)系中(zhong)(zhong)，以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)物(wu)(wu)與人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)相(xiang)比較，則(ze)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)本(ben)(ben)(ben)(ben)，物(wu)(wu)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)末。“神(shen)(shen)(shen)(shen)(shen)”是(shi)(shi)(shi)由(you)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)創造、設(she)(she)想(xiang)(xiang)(xiang)出(chu)來(lai)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)，神(shen)(shen)(shen)(shen)(shen)并不(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)存在(zai)(zai)。人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)因(yin)(yin)(yin)(yin)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)對(dui)(dui)(dui)其所(suo)(suo)(suo)(suo)(suo)經驗到的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)許多(duo)現象無(wu)(wu)法(fa)確切解(jie)釋，或(huo)無(wu)(wu)法(fa)有(you)效控制，所(suo)(suo)(suo)(suo)(suo)以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)設(she)(she)想(xiang)(xiang)(xiang)有(you)“神(shen)(shen)(shen)(shen)(shen)”。“神(shen)(shen)(shen)(shen)(shen)”無(wu)(wu)所(suo)(suo)(suo)(suo)(suo)不(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)在(zai)(zai)、無(wu)(wu)所(suo)(suo)(suo)(suo)(suo)不(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)能(neng)，從而使(shi)(shi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)所(suo)(suo)(suo)(suo)(suo)面(mian)臨的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)難題(ti)可(ke)(ke)以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)寄(ji)希(xi)望(wang)于(yu)(yu)神(shen)(shen)(shen)(shen)(shen)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)幫助而獲得解(jie)決(jue)(jue)(jue)。因(yin)(yin)(yin)(yin)此，相(xiang)信“神(shen)(shen)(shen)(shen)(shen)”，對(dui)(dui)(dui)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)而言是(shi)(shi)(shi)一(yi)(yi)種安慰，可(ke)(ke)以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)使(shi)(shi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)們(men)在(zai)(zai)困難、痛(tong)苦中(zhong)(zhong)看到希(xi)望(wang)，樹立(li)信心(xin)，而不(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)至于(yu)(yu)驚慌失(shi)措、悲觀(guan)絕望(wang)。同時(shi)，也(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)因(yin)(yin)(yin)(yin)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)相(xiang)信“神(shen)(shen)(shen)(shen)(shen)”而為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)樹立(li)了(le)(le)(le)一(yi)(yi)個(ge)監督主體(ti)(ti)(ti)，使(shi)(shi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)不(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)敢恣意(yi)妄為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)，不(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)敢為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)非(fei)作歹，從而為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)利(li)(li)益(yi)福祉增添了(le)(le)(le)一(yi)(yi)份保障(zhang)。這(zhe)也(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)就(jiu)(jiu)是(shi)(shi)(shi)說(shuo)，“神(shen)(shen)(shen)(shen)(shen)”的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)“存在(zai)(zai)”是(shi)(shi)(shi)有(you)積極意(yi)義(yi)(yi)(yi)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)。但是(shi)(shi)(shi)，“神(shen)(shen)(shen)(shen)(shen)”畢(bi)竟是(shi)(shi)(shi)由(you)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)設(she)(she)想(xiang)(xiang)(xiang)出(chu)來(lai)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)，而并非(fei)真實(shi)存在(zai)(zai)，因(yin)(yin)(yin)(yin)此，“神(shen)(shen)(shen)(shen)(shen)”的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)作用(yong)和(he)(he)(he)意(yi)義(yi)(yi)(yi)其實(shi)又是(shi)(shi)(shi)非(fei)常有(you)限的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)。如果(guo)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)們(men)將自(zi)身的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)命(ming)運完全(quan)(quan)托付給“神(shen)(shen)(shen)(shen)(shen)”，完全(quan)(quan)成(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)“神(shen)(shen)(shen)(shen)(shen)”的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)奴仆，則(ze)本(ben)(ben)(ben)(ben)末倒置(zhi)了(le)(le)(le)，是(shi)(shi)(shi)不(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)明智、不(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)理(li)(li)(li)性(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)，是(shi)(shi)(shi)有(you)害(hai)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)、危(wei)險的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)。因(yin)(yin)(yin)(yin)此，我(wo)們(men)要(yao)(yao)強調(diao)“以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)本(ben)(ben)(ben)(ben)”。“以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)本(ben)(ben)(ben)(ben)”是(shi)(shi)(shi)一(yi)(yi)種極具(ju)普遍性(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)價值理(li)(li)(li)念(nian)(nian)(nian)，它對(dui)(dui)(dui)所(suo)(suo)(suo)(suo)(suo)有(you)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)所(suo)(suo)(suo)(suo)(suo)有(you)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)都(dou)具(ju)有(you)指(zhi)(zhi)導和(he)(he)(he)規范意(yi)義(yi)(yi)(yi)。但它尤其是(shi)(shi)(shi)公共(gong)(gong)(gong)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政領域的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)最重(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)要(yao)(yao)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(或(huo)首要(yao)(yao)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de))價值理(li)(li)(li)念(nian)(nian)(nian)，因(yin)(yin)(yin)(yin)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)公共(gong)(gong)(gong)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政涉及的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)是(shi)(shi)(shi)公共(gong)(gong)(gong)利(li)(li)益(yi)和(he)(he)(he)公共(gong)(gong)(gong)事務，涉及社(she)會(hui)(hui)(hui)中(zhong)(zhong)每一(yi)(yi)個(ge)成(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)員的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)利(li)(li)害(hai)禍(huo)福。如果(guo)一(yi)(yi)個(ge)社(she)會(hui)(hui)(hui)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)公共(gong)(gong)(gong)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政“目(mu)(mu)中(zhong)(zhong)無(wu)(wu)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)”，輕(qing)視(shi)(shi)(shi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)、蔑視(shi)(shi)(shi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)，則(ze)所(suo)(suo)(suo)(suo)(suo)有(you)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)都(dou)將遭受煎熬。也(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)因(yin)(yin)(yin)(yin)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)在(zai)(zai)公共(gong)(gong)(gong)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政過程中(zhong)(zhong)，更(geng)多(duo)地(di)要(yao)(yao)涉及人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)與“物(wu)(wu)”的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)關(guan)系、人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)與“神(shen)(shen)(shen)(shen)(shen)”的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)關(guan)系，公共(gong)(gong)(gong)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政主體(ti)(ti)(ti)更(geng)容易在(zai)(zai)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)與物(wu)(wu)、人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)與神(shen)(shen)(shen)(shen)(shen)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)關(guan)系中(zhong)(zhong)迷(mi)失(shi)方(fang)向(xiang)，所(suo)(suo)(suo)(suo)(suo)以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)更(geng)應(ying)(ying)該強調(diao)“以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)本(ben)(ben)(ben)(ben)”。“以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)本(ben)(ben)(ben)(ben)”的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)思(si)想(xiang)(xiang)(xiang)理(li)(li)(li)念(nian)(nian)(nian)可(ke)(ke)謂源(yuan)遠(yuan)流(liu)長。我(wo)國春秋(qiu)戰國時(shi)期(qi)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)管(guan)子(zi)即曾明確提(ti)出(chu)“以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)本(ben)(ben)(ben)(ben)”。《論語》也(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)曾記載，孔子(zi)從朝廷回來(lai)，得知馬(ma)(ma)(ma)棚(peng)失(shi)火，只問了(le)(le)(le)“傷(shang)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)呼?”不(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)問馬(ma)(ma)(ma)(《論語•鄉黨(dang)》)。說(shuo)明孔子(zi)實(shi)際奉行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)本(ben)(ben)(ben)(ben)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)理(li)(li)(li)念(nian)(nian)(nian)。西(xi)方(fang)近代史上的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)“人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)本(ben)(ben)(ben)(ben)主義(yi)(yi)(yi)”和(he)(he)(he)“人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)類中(zhong)(zhong)心(xin)主義(yi)(yi)(yi)”更(geng)是(shi)(shi)(shi)強調(diao)以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)本(ben)(ben)(ben)(ben)，要(yao)(yao)求承(cheng)認人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)價值和(he)(he)(he)尊(zun)(zun)嚴，以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)萬物(wu)(wu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)尺度，以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)類的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)生(sheng)(sheng)存和(he)(he)(he)發(fa)展為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)最高目(mu)(mu)標①。馬(ma)(ma)(ma)克思(si)主義(yi)(yi)(yi)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)思(si)想(xiang)(xiang)(xiang)體(ti)(ti)(ti)系中(zhong)(zhong)也(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)包含有(you)“以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)本(ben)(ben)(ben)(ben)”的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)思(si)想(xiang)(xiang)(xiang)。馬(ma)(ma)(ma)克思(si)曾說(shuo):“專制政體(ti)(ti)(ti)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)原則(ze)總的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)來(lai)說(shuo)就(jiu)(jiu)是(shi)(shi)(shi)輕(qing)視(shi)(shi)(shi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)，蔑視(shi)(shi)(shi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)，使(shi)(shi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)不(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)成(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)其為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)”［3］411，“這(zhe)種制度的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)原則(ze)就(jiu)(jiu)是(shi)(shi)(shi)使(shi)(shi)世(shi)(shi)界(jie)(jie)(jie)不(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)(bu)成(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)其為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)世(shi)(shi)界(jie)(jie)(jie)”，世(shi)(shi)界(jie)(jie)(jie)于(yu)(yu)是(shi)(shi)(shi)成(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)“庸人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)世(shi)(shi)界(jie)(jie)(jie)”，成(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)“政治動(dong)物(wu)(wu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)世(shi)(shi)界(jie)(jie)(jie)”［3］410，419。中(zhong)(zhong)國共(gong)(gong)(gong)產(chan)黨(dang)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)對(dui)(dui)(dui)馬(ma)(ma)(ma)克思(si)主義(yi)(yi)(yi)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)本(ben)(ben)(ben)(ben)主義(yi)(yi)(yi)思(si)想(xiang)(xiang)(xiang)作了(le)(le)(le)繼承(cheng)性(xing)闡釋。2003年(nian)(nian)10月，中(zhong)(zhong)國共(gong)(gong)(gong)產(chan)黨(dang)十六屆三中(zhong)(zhong)全(quan)(quan)會(hui)(hui)(hui)《關(guan)于(yu)(yu)完善(shan)社(she)會(hui)(hui)(hui)主義(yi)(yi)(yi)市場(chang)經濟體(ti)(ti)(ti)制若(ruo)干問題(ti)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)決(jue)(jue)(jue)定(ding)》提(ti)出(chu)，“堅(jian)(jian)持以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)本(ben)(ben)(ben)(ben)，樹立(li)全(quan)(quan)面(mian)、協調(diao)、可(ke)(ke)持續的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)發(fa)展觀(guan)，促進(jin)經濟社(she)會(hui)(hui)(hui)和(he)(he)(he)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)全(quan)(quan)面(mian)發(fa)展”;2007年(nian)(nian)10月，在(zai)(zai)中(zhong)(zhong)國共(gong)(gong)(gong)產(chan)黨(dang)第(di)(di)十七次(ci)全(quan)(quan)國代表大(da)會(hui)(hui)(hui)“報告”中(zhong)(zhong)提(ti)出(chu):“科(ke)學發(fa)展觀(guan)，第(di)(di)一(yi)(yi)要(yao)(yao)義(yi)(yi)(yi)是(shi)(shi)(shi)發(fa)展，核心(xin)是(shi)(shi)(shi)以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)本(ben)(ben)(ben)(ben)……”，強調(diao)“必(bi)須堅(jian)(jian)持以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)本(ben)(ben)(ben)(ben)”。十七大(da)將科(ke)學發(fa)展觀(guan)寫入黨(dang)章，而“以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)本(ben)(ben)(ben)(ben)”也(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)正(zheng)式明確為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)中(zhong)(zhong)國共(gong)(gong)(gong)產(chan)黨(dang)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)最重(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)要(yao)(yao)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)執政理(li)(li)(li)念(nian)(nian)(nian)。

二、公共利益

“以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)本(ben)(ben)”實(shi)(shi)質(zhi)上(shang)也(ye)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)本(ben)(ben)，即(ji)(ji)(ji)我們(men)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)切行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)都(dou)無非(fei)(fei)(fei)(fei)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)了(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)實(shi)(shi)現(xian)(xian)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)，亦即(ji)(ji)(ji)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)了(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)創造、獲(huo)(huo)得能(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)夠(gou)滿(man)(man)(man)足(zu)(zu)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)需(xu)(xu)(xu)(xu)(xu)要(yao)(yao)(yao)(yao)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)事(shi)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)、條(tiao)(tiao)(tiao)件(jian)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)資源(yuan)(yuan)。公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)秉(bing)承(cheng)以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)本(ben)(ben)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)價值(zhi)(zhi)理(li)(li)念，也(ye)就(jiu)(jiu)必(bi)(bi)(bi)(bi)然(ran)以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)實(shi)(shi)現(xian)(xian)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)根本(ben)(ben)目(mu)(mu)標(biao)。但是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)，公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)不(bu)(bu)(bu)可(ke)(ke)(ke)(ke)(ke)能(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)、不(bu)(bu)(bu)必(bi)(bi)(bi)(bi)要(yao)(yao)(yao)(yao)、也(ye)不(bu)(bu)(bu)應(ying)該(gai)(gai)以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)全方(fang)(fang)面的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)目(mu)(mu)標(biao)，而(er)只(zhi)(zhi)可(ke)(ke)(ke)(ke)(ke)能(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)、只(zhi)(zhi)需(xu)(xu)(xu)(xu)(xu)要(yao)(yao)(yao)(yao)、只(zhi)(zhi)應(ying)該(gai)(gai)以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)其(qi)(qi)中(zhong)(zhong)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)“公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)”為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)目(mu)(mu)標(biao)。所(suo)(suo)以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)，公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)僅次于“以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)本(ben)(ben)”的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)重(zhong)要(yao)(yao)(yao)(yao)價值(zhi)(zhi)理(li)(li)念。所(suo)(suo)謂(wei)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)，即(ji)(ji)(ji)具有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)，亦即(ji)(ji)(ji)滿(man)(man)(man)足(zu)(zu)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)需(xu)(xu)(xu)(xu)(xu)要(yao)(yao)(yao)(yao)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)事(shi)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)、條(tiao)(tiao)(tiao)件(jian)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)資源(yuan)(yuan)，或(huo)(huo)(huo)者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)說(shuo)(shuo)(shuo)，滿(man)(man)(man)足(zu)(zu)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)需(xu)(xu)(xu)(xu)(xu)要(yao)(yao)(yao)(yao)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)、具有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)非(fei)(fei)(fei)(fei)競(jing)(jing)(jing)爭(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)非(fei)(fei)(fei)(fei)排(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)他(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)特(te)(te)(te)征(zheng)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)事(shi)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)、條(tiao)(tiao)(tiao)件(jian)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)資源(yuan)(yuan)。公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)部(bu)分(fen)(fen)(fen)(fen)，其(qi)(qi)他(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)部(bu)分(fen)(fen)(fen)(fen)則(ze)(ze)(ze)(ze)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)“私(si)(si)(si)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)”。人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)之(zhi)所(suo)(suo)以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)與(yu)(yu)私(si)(si)(si)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)之(zhi)分(fen)(fen)(fen)(fen)，一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)方(fang)(fang)面與(yu)(yu)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)關(guan)，另一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)方(fang)(fang)面則(ze)(ze)(ze)(ze)與(yu)(yu)事(shi)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)、條(tiao)(tiao)(tiao)件(jian)、資源(yuan)(yuan)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)存(cun)(cun)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)形(xing)(xing)式即(ji)(ji)(ji)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)關(guan)。人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)群居(ju)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)、社(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)會(hui)(hui)(hui)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)動(dong)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)，但同(tong)(tong)時又(you)以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)獨(du)立(li)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)個(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)體(ti)(ti)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)形(xing)(xing)式而(er)存(cun)(cun)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)。作為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)獨(du)立(li)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)個(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)體(ti)(ti)，人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)不(bu)(bu)(bu)僅能(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)夠(gou)意(yi)(yi)識(shi)(shi)到(dao)自己(ji)(ji)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)獨(du)立(li)存(cun)(cun)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)，而(er)且(qie)有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)種(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)自利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)傾(qing)向，有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)種(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)滿(man)(man)(man)足(zu)(zu)自身(shen)需(xu)(xu)(xu)(xu)(xu)要(yao)(yao)(yao)(yao)、欲望和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)目(mu)(mu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)強(qiang)烈沖動(dong)。這(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)種(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)沖動(dong)最(zui)終表(biao)(biao)現(xian)(xian)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)對(dui)外(wai)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)對(dui)象(xiang)(xiang)(即(ji)(ji)(ji)事(shi)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)、條(tiao)(tiao)(tiao)件(jian)、資源(yuan)(yuan))的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)改(gai)造和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)占有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)。但也(ye)正(zheng)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)對(dui)外(wai)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)對(dui)象(xiang)(xiang)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)改(gai)造和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)占有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)過(guo)程(cheng)中(zhong)(zhong)，人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)們(men)意(yi)(yi)識(shi)(shi)到(dao)了(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)個(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)力(li)量的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)不(bu)(bu)(bu)足(zu)(zu)或(huo)(huo)(huo)者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)獨(du)立(li)占有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)不(bu)(bu)(bu)可(ke)(ke)(ke)(ke)(ke)能(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)，意(yi)(yi)識(shi)(shi)到(dao)了(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)聯合起來(lai)(lai)(lai)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)群體(ti)(ti)力(li)量的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)優勢以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)及(ji)以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)群體(ti)(ti)形(xing)(xing)式占有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)合理(li)(li)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)，因(yin)(yin)(yin)此，獨(du)立(li)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)個(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)體(ti)(ti)選擇了(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)群居(ju)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)生(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)存(cun)(cun)方(fang)(fang)式，形(xing)(xing)成(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)了(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)類(lei)社(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)會(hui)(hui)(hui)。人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)類(lei)社(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)會(hui)(hui)(hui)形(xing)(xing)成(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)了(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)，人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)類(lei)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)漫長的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)社(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)會(hui)(hui)(hui)生(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)活中(zhong)(zhong)獲(huo)(huo)得了(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)“社(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)會(hui)(hui)(hui)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)”本(ben)(ben)質(zhi)，但其(qi)(qi)社(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)會(hui)(hui)(hui)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)本(ben)(ben)質(zhi)并(bing)(bing)不(bu)(bu)(bu)因(yin)(yin)(yin)此而(er)否定、而(er)掩蓋、而(er)消(xiao)解人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)個(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)體(ti)(ti)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)獨(du)立(li)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)。相(xiang)(xiang)反，人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)社(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)會(hui)(hui)(hui)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)本(ben)(ben)質(zhi)總是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)個(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)體(ti)(ti)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)獨(du)立(li)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)前提(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)基礎。這(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)樣(yang)(yang)，人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)社(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)會(hui)(hui)(hui)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)與(yu)(yu)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)個(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)體(ti)(ti)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)現(xian)(xian)實(shi)(shi)生(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)活中(zhong)(zhong)結成(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)了(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)幅“對(dui)子”，它(ta)們(men)存(cun)(cun)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)著(zhu)沖突和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)矛(mao)盾，但又(you)相(xiang)(xiang)互聯系、相(xiang)(xiang)互依存(cun)(cun)。而(er)它(ta)們(men)之(zhi)所(suo)(suo)以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)矛(mao)盾沖突，或(huo)(huo)(huo)者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)相(xiang)(xiang)互依存(cun)(cun)都(dou)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)因(yin)(yin)(yin)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)“利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)”。因(yin)(yin)(yin)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)“公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)”，人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)們(men)結成(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)了(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)社(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)會(hui)(hui)(hui);因(yin)(yin)(yin)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)“私(si)(si)(si)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)”，處身(shen)于社(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)會(hui)(hui)(hui)中(zhong)(zhong)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)們(men)又(you)千(qian)方(fang)(fang)百計地尋求獨(du)立(li)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)自由(you)。這(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)也(ye)就(jiu)(jiu)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)說(shuo)(shuo)(shuo)，因(yin)(yin)(yin)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)社(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)會(hui)(hui)(hui)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)個(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)體(ti)(ti)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)，也(ye)就(jiu)(jiu)必(bi)(bi)(bi)(bi)然(ran)有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)或(huo)(huo)(huo)者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)說(shuo)(shuo)(shuo)必(bi)(bi)(bi)(bi)須(xu)有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)私(si)(si)(si)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)區(qu)(qu)分(fen)(fen)(fen)(fen)，沒(mei)(mei)(mei)(mei)有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)不(bu)(bu)(bu)能(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)實(shi)(shi)現(xian)(xian)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)社(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)會(hui)(hui)(hui)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)，沒(mei)(mei)(mei)(mei)有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)私(si)(si)(si)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)則(ze)(ze)(ze)(ze)不(bu)(bu)(bu)能(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)實(shi)(shi)現(xian)(xian)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)個(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)體(ti)(ti)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)。事(shi)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)、條(tiao)(tiao)(tiao)件(jian)、資源(yuan)(yuan)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)存(cun)(cun)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)形(xing)(xing)式即(ji)(ji)(ji)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)要(yao)(yao)(yao)(yao)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)就(jiu)(jiu)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)“競(jing)(jing)(jing)爭(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)”與(yu)(yu)“非(fei)(fei)(fei)(fei)競(jing)(jing)(jing)爭(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)”、“排(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)他(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)”與(yu)(yu)“非(fei)(fei)(fei)(fei)排(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)他(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)”特(te)(te)(te)征(zheng)而(er)言的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)。所(suo)(suo)謂(wei)競(jing)(jing)(jing)爭(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)與(yu)(yu)非(fei)(fei)(fei)(fei)競(jing)(jing)(jing)爭(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)，是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)指(zhi)(zhi)“物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)”被(bei)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)消(xiao)費(fei)(fei)(fei)時是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)否因(yin)(yin)(yin)分(fen)(fen)(fen)(fen)享(xiang)者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)數的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)增(zeng)加(jia)而(er)明(ming)顯減少(shao)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)均消(xiao)費(fei)(fei)(fei)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)份額，或(huo)(huo)(huo)者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)否因(yin)(yin)(yin)分(fen)(fen)(fen)(fen)享(xiang)者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)數的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)增(zeng)加(jia)而(er)導(dao)致成(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)本(ben)(ben)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)增(zeng)長。是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)，則(ze)(ze)(ze)(ze)該(gai)(gai)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)種(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)具有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)競(jing)(jing)(jing)爭(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)品(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin);否，則(ze)(ze)(ze)(ze)該(gai)(gai)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)種(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)具有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)非(fei)(fei)(fei)(fei)競(jing)(jing)(jing)爭(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)品(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)。所(suo)(suo)謂(wei)排(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)他(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)與(yu)(yu)非(fei)(fei)(fei)(fei)排(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)他(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)，是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)指(zhi)(zhi)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)被(bei)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)消(xiao)費(fei)(fei)(fei)時能(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)否將(jiang)其(qi)(qi)他(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)試(shi)(shi)圖(tu)分(fen)(fen)(fen)(fen)享(xiang)該(gai)(gai)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)排(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)除(chu)(chu)(chu)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)外(wai)，或(huo)(huo)(huo)者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)否因(yin)(yin)(yin)排(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)除(chu)(chu)(chu)其(qi)(qi)他(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)分(fen)(fen)(fen)(fen)享(xiang)者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)而(er)花(hua)(hua)費(fei)(fei)(fei)巨大(da)成(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)本(ben)(ben)。能(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)不(bu)(bu)(bu)花(hua)(hua)費(fei)(fei)(fei)巨大(da)成(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)本(ben)(ben)而(er)將(jiang)試(shi)(shi)圖(tu)分(fen)(fen)(fen)(fen)享(xiang)者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)排(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)除(chu)(chu)(chu)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)外(wai)，則(ze)(ze)(ze)(ze)該(gai)(gai)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)種(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)具有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)排(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)他(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)品(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)，否則(ze)(ze)(ze)(ze)該(gai)(gai)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)種(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)具有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)非(fei)(fei)(fei)(fei)排(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)他(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)品(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)。物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)品(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)競(jing)(jing)(jing)爭(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)與(yu)(yu)非(fei)(fei)(fei)(fei)競(jing)(jing)(jing)爭(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)、排(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)他(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)與(yu)(yu)非(fei)(fei)(fei)(fei)排(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)他(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)特(te)(te)(te)征(zheng)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)由(you)經(jing)(jing)濟(ji)學家們(men)歸納(na)(na)出(chu)(chu)來(lai)(lai)(lai)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)，他(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)們(men)發(fa)現(xian)(xian)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)品(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)種(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)具有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)非(fei)(fei)(fei)(fei)競(jing)(jing)(jing)爭(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)非(fei)(fei)(fei)(fei)排(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)他(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)品(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)，而(er)私(si)(si)(si)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)品(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)則(ze)(ze)(ze)(ze)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)具有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)競(jing)(jing)(jing)爭(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)排(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)他(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)品(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)。公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)品(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)私(si)(si)(si)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)品(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)區(qu)(qu)分(fen)(fen)(fen)(fen)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)與(yu)(yu)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)私(si)(si)(si)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)區(qu)(qu)分(fen)(fen)(fen)(fen)相(xiang)(xiang)對(dui)應(ying)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)，物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)品(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)都(dou)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)指(zhi)(zhi)滿(man)(man)(man)足(zu)(zu)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)需(xu)(xu)(xu)(xu)(xu)要(yao)(yao)(yao)(yao)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)對(dui)象(xiang)(xiang)，二者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)同(tong)(tong)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)，所(suo)(suo)以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)，公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)品(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)即(ji)(ji)(ji)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)，私(si)(si)(si)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)品(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)即(ji)(ji)(ji)私(si)(si)(si)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)。這(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)也(ye)就(jiu)(jiu)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)說(shuo)(shuo)(shuo)，公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)之(zhi)所(suo)(suo)以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)因(yin)(yin)(yin)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)它(ta)作為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)滿(man)(man)(man)足(zu)(zu)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)需(xu)(xu)(xu)(xu)(xu)要(yao)(yao)(yao)(yao)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)對(dui)象(xiang)(xiang)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)種(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)品(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)，是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)種(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)具有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)非(fei)(fei)(fei)(fei)競(jing)(jing)(jing)爭(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)非(fei)(fei)(fei)(fei)排(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)他(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)品(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin);而(er)私(si)(si)(si)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)之(zhi)所(suo)(suo)以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)私(si)(si)(si)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)則(ze)(ze)(ze)(ze)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)因(yin)(yin)(yin)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)它(ta)作為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)種(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)滿(man)(man)(man)足(zu)(zu)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)需(xu)(xu)(xu)(xu)(xu)要(yao)(yao)(yao)(yao)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)對(dui)象(xiang)(xiang)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)種(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)私(si)(si)(si)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)品(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)，是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)種(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)具有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)競(jing)(jing)(jing)爭(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)排(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)他(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)品(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)。人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)實(shi)(shi)際上(shang)也(ye)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)聯系在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)起的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)，是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)相(xiang)(xiang)互映照的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)，沒(mei)(mei)(mei)(mei)有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)社(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)會(hui)(hui)(hui)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)與(yu)(yu)個(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)體(ti)(ti)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)區(qu)(qu)別(bie)，物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)與(yu)(yu)私(si)(si)(si)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)區(qu)(qu)分(fen)(fen)(fen)(fen)就(jiu)(jiu)沒(mei)(mei)(mei)(mei)有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)意(yi)(yi)義、沒(mei)(mei)(mei)(mei)有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)必(bi)(bi)(bi)(bi)要(yao)(yao)(yao)(yao);而(er)沒(mei)(mei)(mei)(mei)有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)與(yu)(yu)私(si)(si)(si)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)不(bu)(bu)(bu)同(tong)(tong)，則(ze)(ze)(ze)(ze)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)社(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)會(hui)(hui)(hui)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)與(yu)(yu)個(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)體(ti)(ti)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)區(qu)(qu)分(fen)(fen)(fen)(fen)也(ye)沒(mei)(mei)(mei)(mei)有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)意(yi)(yi)義、沒(mei)(mei)(mei)(mei)有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)價值(zhi)(zhi)。正(zheng)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)因(yin)(yin)(yin)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)社(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)會(hui)(hui)(hui)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)與(yu)(yu)個(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)體(ti)(ti)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)區(qu)(qu)分(fen)(fen)(fen)(fen)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)與(yu)(yu)私(si)(si)(si)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)區(qu)(qu)分(fen)(fen)(fen)(fen)這(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)兩(liang)方(fang)(fang)面的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)不(bu)(bu)(bu)以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)觀意(yi)(yi)志為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)轉移(yi)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)“客觀因(yin)(yin)(yin)素”的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)存(cun)(cun)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)，所(suo)(suo)以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)，人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)類(lei)不(bu)(bu)(bu)得不(bu)(bu)(bu)將(jiang)其(qi)(qi)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)區(qu)(qu)分(fen)(fen)(fen)(fen)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)私(si)(si)(si)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)。公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)之(zhi)所(suo)(suo)以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)重(zhong)要(yao)(yao)(yao)(yao)價值(zhi)(zhi)理(li)(li)念，這(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)因(yin)(yin)(yin)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)只(zhi)(zhi)能(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)夠(gou)通過(guo)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)途徑(jing)(jing)實(shi)(shi)現(xian)(xian)，而(er)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)也(ye)正(zheng)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)因(yin)(yin)(yin)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)而(er)產(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)生(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)，沒(mei)(mei)(mei)(mei)有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)，公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)將(jiang)失(shi)去(qu)其(qi)(qi)存(cun)(cun)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)必(bi)(bi)(bi)(bi)要(yao)(yao)(yao)(yao)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)合理(li)(li)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)。關(guan)于公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)只(zhi)(zhi)能(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)通過(guo)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)途徑(jing)(jing)實(shi)(shi)現(xian)(xian)這(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)問(wen)題，英國(guo)哲(zhe)學家休謨(1771—1776年)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)其(qi)(qi)《人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)論(lun)(lun)(lun)(lun)》(1739—1740年)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)書中(zhong)(zhong)即(ji)(ji)(ji)有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)討論(lun)(lun)(lun)(lun)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)回答。休謨從人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)自利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)出(chu)(chu)發(fa)，證明(ming)個(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)不(bu)(bu)(bu)可(ke)(ke)(ke)(ke)(ke)能(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)解決(jue)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)提(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)供(gong)(gong)(gong)問(wen)題。他(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)舉(ju)例說(shuo)(shuo)(shuo)，兩(liang)個(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)鄰人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)可(ke)(ke)(ke)(ke)(ke)能(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)同(tong)(tong)意(yi)(yi)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)草地上(shang)排(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)水(shui)，因(yin)(yin)(yin)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)他(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)們(men)容易了(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)解彼此的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)意(yi)(yi)圖(tu)，也(ye)會(hui)(hui)(hui)理(li)(li)解到(dao)自己(ji)(ji)不(bu)(bu)(bu)參加(jia)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)直接(jie)后(hou)果是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)放(fang)棄整個(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)計劃，但是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)誰也(ye)不(bu)(bu)(bu)能(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)指(zhi)(zhi)望成(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)千(qian)上(shang)萬的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)能(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)夠(gou)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)“共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)草地”上(shang)采取這(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)樣(yang)(yang)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)致行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)動(dong)。因(yin)(yin)(yin)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)都(dou)傾(qing)向于找借口逃(tao)避出(chu)(chu)錢出(chu)(chu)力(li)，都(dou)希望別(bie)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)來(lai)(lai)(lai)承(cheng)擔全部(bu)責(ze)任(ren)。但是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)，政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)治社(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)會(hui)(hui)(hui)能(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)對(dui)這(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)種(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)缺(que)憾(han)予以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)補救(jiu)，在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)府的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)管理(li)(li)下(xia)，“橋梁建(jian)(jian)筑了(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)，海港(gang)開辟了(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)，城(cheng)墻(qiang)修筑了(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)，運(yun)河挖掘了(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)，艦(jian)隊裝備了(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)，軍隊訓(xun)練了(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)。”［4］經(jing)(jing)濟(ji)學家亞(ya)當(dang)•斯(si)密在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)《國(guo)富論(lun)(lun)(lun)(lun)》(1776年)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)書中(zhong)(zhong)表(biao)(biao)達了(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)與(yu)(yu)休謨類(lei)似的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)思想。約翰•斯(si)圖(tu)亞(ya)特(te)(te)(te)•穆勒(le)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)其(qi)(qi)名著(zhu)《政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)治經(jing)(jing)濟(ji)學原理(li)(li)及(ji)其(qi)(qi)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)社(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)會(hui)(hui)(hui)哲(zhe)學上(shang)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)應(ying)用(yong)(yong)》(1848年)中(zhong)(zhong)，對(dui)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)什么必(bi)(bi)(bi)(bi)須(xu)由(you)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)府提(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)供(gong)(gong)(gong)某(mou)些(xie)服(fu)務(wu)做了(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)進一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)步的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)論(lun)(lun)(lun)(lun)證。他(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)舉(ju)了(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)燈塔(ta)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)例子來(lai)(lai)(lai)說(shuo)(shuo)(shuo)明(ming)，他(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)認為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)像燈塔(ta)這(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)樣(yang)(yang)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)品(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)，個(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)不(bu)(bu)(bu)可(ke)(ke)(ke)(ke)(ke)能(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)動(dong)建(jian)(jian)造，原因(yin)(yin)(yin)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)于，這(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)類(lei)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)品(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)建(jian)(jian)造者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)提(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)供(gong)(gong)(gong)者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)很(hen)難(nan)對(dui)使(shi)用(yong)(yong)者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)收費(fei)(fei)(fei)，以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)補償建(jian)(jian)造費(fei)(fei)(fei)用(yong)(yong)并(bing)(bing)有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)所(suo)(suo)獲(huo)(huo)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)。解決(jue)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)辦法(fa)只(zhi)(zhi)能(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)，由(you)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)府采用(yong)(yong)收稅的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)辦法(fa)建(jian)(jian)造或(huo)(huo)(huo)提(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)供(gong)(gong)(gong)。也(ye)就(jiu)(jiu)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)說(shuo)(shuo)(shuo)，對(dui)于收費(fei)(fei)(fei)困難(nan)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)品(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)或(huo)(huo)(huo)服(fu)務(wu)，只(zhi)(zhi)能(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)由(you)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)府來(lai)(lai)(lai)提(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)供(gong)(gong)(gong)。穆勒(le)所(suo)(suo)謂(wei)“收費(fei)(fei)(fei)困難(nan)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)品(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)或(huo)(huo)(huo)服(fu)務(wu)”，即(ji)(ji)(ji)我們(men)今(jin)天(tian)所(suo)(suo)謂(wei)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)品(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)或(huo)(huo)(huo)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)服(fu)務(wu)，亦即(ji)(ji)(ji)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)。正(zheng)式提(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)出(chu)(chu)并(bing)(bing)嚴格定義“公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)品(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)”概念的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)當(dang)代福(fu)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)經(jing)(jing)濟(ji)學代表(biao)(biao)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)之(zhi)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)P．薩繆爾(er)森，他(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)于1954年在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)《經(jing)(jing)濟(ji)學與(yu)(yu)統計學評論(lun)(lun)(lun)(lun)》雜志上(shang)發(fa)表(biao)(biao)了(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)《公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)支出(chu)(chu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)純理(li)(li)論(lun)(lun)(lun)(lun)》一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)文(wen)，歸納(na)(na)了(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)品(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)消(xiao)費(fei)(fei)(fei)中(zhong)(zhong)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)兩(liang)個(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)本(ben)(ben)質(zhi)特(te)(te)(te)征(zheng):非(fei)(fei)(fei)(fei)排(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)他(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)非(fei)(fei)(fei)(fei)競(jing)(jing)(jing)爭(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)，并(bing)(bing)同(tong)(tong)時強(qiang)調(diao)，公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)品(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)要(yao)(yao)(yao)(yao)求“集(ji)體(ti)(ti)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)動(dong)”，而(er)私(si)(si)(si)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)品(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)可(ke)(ke)(ke)(ke)(ke)以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)由(you)“市場”提(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)供(gong)(gong)(gong)。世界(jie)銀行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)《1997年世界(jie)發(fa)展報告》在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)定義公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)品(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)時也(ye)強(qiang)調(diao)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)品(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)不(bu)(bu)(bu)可(ke)(ke)(ke)(ke)(ke)能(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)由(you)私(si)(si)(si)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)提(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)供(gong)(gong)(gong):“公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)品(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)指(zhi)(zhi)非(fei)(fei)(fei)(fei)競(jing)(jing)(jing)爭(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)非(fei)(fei)(fei)(fei)排(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)他(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)貨物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)。非(fei)(fei)(fei)(fei)競(jing)(jing)(jing)爭(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)指(zhi)(zhi)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)個(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)使(shi)用(yong)(yong)者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)對(dui)該(gai)(gai)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)品(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)消(xiao)費(fei)(fei)(fei)并(bing)(bing)不(bu)(bu)(bu)減少(shao)它(ta)對(dui)其(qi)(qi)他(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)使(shi)用(yong)(yong)者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)供(gong)(gong)(gong)應(ying)，非(fei)(fei)(fei)(fei)排(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)他(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)指(zhi)(zhi)使(shi)用(yong)(yong)者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)不(bu)(bu)(bu)能(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)被(bei)排(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)(pai)除(chu)(chu)(chu)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)對(dui)該(gai)(gai)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)品(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)消(xiao)費(fei)(fei)(fei)之(zhi)外(wai)。這(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)些(xie)特(te)(te)(te)征(zheng)使(shi)得對(dui)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)品(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)收費(fei)(fei)(fei)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)不(bu)(bu)(bu)可(ke)(ke)(ke)(ke)(ke)能(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)，因(yin)(yin)(yin)而(er)私(si)(si)(si)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)提(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)供(gong)(gong)(gong)者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)就(jiu)(jiu)沒(mei)(mei)(mei)(mei)有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)提(ti)(ti)(ti)(ti)供(gong)(gong)(gong)這(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)種(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)物(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)品(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)積(ji)極性(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)。”［5］關(guan)于公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)其(qi)(qi)產(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)生(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)存(cun)(cun)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)理(li)(li)由(you)這(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)問(wen)題，恩格斯(si)曾有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)過(guo)討論(lun)(lun)(lun)(lun)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)說(shuo)(shuo)(shuo)明(ming)。在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)《反杜林論(lun)(lun)(lun)(lun)》一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)書中(zhong)(zhong)恩格斯(si)指(zhi)(zhi)出(chu)(chu)，在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)所(suo)(suo)有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)原始(shi)農業公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)社(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)中(zhong)(zhong)，“一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)開始(shi)就(jiu)(jiu)存(cun)(cun)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)著(zhu)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)定的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)同(tong)(tong)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)，維(wei)護(hu)(hu)這(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)種(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)同(tong)(tong)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)工(gong)作，雖然(ran)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)全社(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)會(hui)(hui)(hui)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)監督(du)之(zhi)下(xia)，卻不(bu)(bu)(bu)能(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)由(you)個(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)別(bie)成(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)員來(lai)(lai)(lai)擔當(dang):如解決(jue)爭(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)端;制止個(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)別(bie)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)越權(quan)(quan);監督(du)用(yong)(yong)水(shui)，特(te)(te)(te)別(bie)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)炎熱的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)地方(fang)(fang);最(zui)后(hou)，在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)非(fei)(fei)(fei)(fei)常原始(shi)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)狀態下(xia)執行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)宗教職能(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)。這(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)樣(yang)(yang)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)職能(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)，在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)任(ren)何(he)時候的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)原始(shi)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)社(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)中(zhong)(zhong)，例如在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)最(zui)古老的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)德意(yi)(yi)志的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)馬爾(er)克公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)社(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)中(zhong)(zhong)，甚至在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)今(jin)天(tian)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)印度(du)(du)，還可(ke)(ke)(ke)(ke)(ke)以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)看(kan)到(dao)。這(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)些(xie)職位(wei)被(bei)賦予了(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)某(mou)種(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)全權(quan)(quan)，這(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)國(guo)家權(quan)(quan)力(li)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)萌(meng)(meng)芽。”［6］恩格斯(si)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)這(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)里要(yao)(yao)(yao)(yao)說(shuo)(shuo)(shuo)明(ming)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)，國(guo)家權(quan)(quan)力(li)萌(meng)(meng)芽于維(wei)護(hu)(hu)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)同(tong)(tong)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)需(xu)(xu)(xu)(xu)(xu)要(yao)(yao)(yao)(yao)。共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)同(tong)(tong)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)“一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)開始(shi)就(jiu)(jiu)存(cun)(cun)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)著(zhu)”。因(yin)(yin)(yin)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)同(tong)(tong)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)存(cun)(cun)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)，所(suo)(suo)以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)需(xu)(xu)(xu)(xu)(xu)要(yao)(yao)(yao)(yao)有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)“維(wei)護(hu)(hu)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)同(tong)(tong)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)工(gong)作”即(ji)(ji)(ji)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)管理(li)(li)(行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng))。而(er)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)管理(li)(li)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)工(gong)作不(bu)(bu)(bu)可(ke)(ke)(ke)(ke)(ke)能(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)(neng)“由(you)個(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)別(bie)成(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)員來(lai)(lai)(lai)擔當(dang)”，需(xu)(xu)(xu)(xu)(xu)要(yao)(yao)(yao)(yao)有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)個(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)類(lei)似于政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)府的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)組(zu)織(zhi)來(lai)(lai)(lai)擔當(dang)。有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)組(zu)織(zhi)就(jiu)(jiu)需(xu)(xu)(xu)(xu)(xu)要(yao)(yao)(yao)(yao)有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)權(quan)(quan)力(li)，這(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)種(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)原始(shi)社(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)會(hui)(hui)(hui)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)管理(li)(li)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)事(shi)務(wu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)權(quan)(quan)力(li)就(jiu)(jiu)成(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)國(guo)家權(quan)(quan)力(li)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)萌(meng)(meng)芽。這(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)也(ye)就(jiu)(jiu)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)說(shuo)(shuo)(shuo)，公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)組(zu)織(zhi)、公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)權(quan)(quan)力(li)、公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)事(shi)務(wu)以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)及(ji)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)都(dou)起源(yuan)(yuan)于維(wei)護(hu)(hu)社(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)會(hui)(hui)(hui)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)同(tong)(tong)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)必(bi)(bi)(bi)(bi)要(yao)(yao)(yao)(yao)。在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)《論(lun)(lun)(lun)(lun)住宅問(wen)題》中(zhong)(zhong)，恩格斯(si)再次從社(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)會(hui)(hui)(hui)生(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)產(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)交換的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)需(xu)(xu)(xu)(xu)(xu)要(yao)(yao)(yao)(yao)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)角度(du)(du)，論(lun)(lun)(lun)(lun)述了(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)作為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)管理(li)(li)主(zhu)(zhu)(zhu)體(ti)(ti)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)國(guo)家的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)起源(yuan)(yuan)。他(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)(ta)說(shuo)(shuo)(shuo):“在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)社(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)會(hui)(hui)(hui)發(fa)展的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)某(mou)個(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)很(hen)早的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)階段，產(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)生(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)了(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)這(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)樣(yang)(yang)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)個(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)需(xu)(xu)(xu)(xu)(xu)要(yao)(yao)(yao)(yao):把每天(tian)重(zhong)復(fu)著(zhu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)生(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)產(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)、分(fen)(fen)(fen)(fen)配和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)交換產(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)品(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)用(yong)(yong)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)個(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)同(tong)(tong)規(gui)則(ze)(ze)(ze)(ze)概括起來(lai)(lai)(lai)，設法(fa)使(shi)個(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)服(fu)從生(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)產(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)交換的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)般(ban)條(tiao)(tiao)(tiao)件(jian)，這(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)個(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)(ge)規(gui)則(ze)(ze)(ze)(ze)首(shou)先表(biao)(biao)現(xian)(xian)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)習慣，后(hou)來(lai)(lai)(lai)便(bian)成(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)了(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)法(fa)律(lv)。隨著(zhu)法(fa)律(lv)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)產(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)生(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)，就(jiu)(jiu)必(bi)(bi)(bi)(bi)然(ran)產(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)生(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)出(chu)(chu)以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)維(wei)護(hu)(hu)法(fa)律(lv)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)職責(ze)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)權(quan)(quan)力(li)———公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)權(quan)(quan)力(li)，即(ji)(ji)(ji)國(guo)家。”［7］在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)類(lei)社(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)(she)會(hui)(hui)(hui)中(zhong)(zhong)，先表(biao)(biao)現(xian)(xian)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)習慣后(hou)成(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)法(fa)律(lv)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)“共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)同(tong)(tong)規(gui)則(ze)(ze)(ze)(ze)”不(bu)(bu)(bu)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)憑空產(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)生(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)，正(zheng)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)因(yin)(yin)(yin)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)人(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)(ren)類(lei)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)“每天(tian)重(zhong)復(fu)著(zhu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)生(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)產(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)、分(fen)(fen)(fen)(fen)配和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)交換產(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)品(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)(pin)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)”中(zhong)(zhong)有(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)(you)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)同(tong)(tong)利(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)(li)益(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)存(cun)(cun)在(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)，才產(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)生(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)了(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)(le)對(dui)于共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)同(tong)(tong)規(gui)則(ze)(ze)(ze)(ze)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)需(xu)(xu)(xu)(xu)(xu)要(yao)(yao)(yao)(yao)。而(er)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)同(tong)(tong)規(gui)則(ze)(ze)(ze)(ze)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)產(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)生(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)不(bu)(bu)(bu)僅必(bi)(bi)(bi)(bi)然(ran)產(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)生(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)維(wei)護(hu)(hu)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)同(tong)(tong)規(gui)則(ze)(ze)(ze)(ze)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)“公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)權(quan)(quan)力(li)”，而(er)且(qie)必(bi)(bi)(bi)(bi)然(ran)產(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)生(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)種(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)使(shi)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)權(quan)(quan)力(li)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)組(zu)織(zhi)以(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)及(ji)公(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)管理(li)(li)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)行(xing)(xing)(xing)(xing)為(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)(wei)和(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)(he)過(guo)程(cheng)。

三、行政效率

內容提要：社(she)會(hui)信息化(hua)是當代社(she)會(hui)的(de)一種大趨勢，它正推(tui)動著(zhu)公(gong)共行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)現(xian)代化(hua)的(de)進程(cheng)。信息技術的(de)發展對諸(zhu)如行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)人員、行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)決策、行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)組織、行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)方法、行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)公(gong)文、政(zheng)(zheng)府管理(li)模式等公(gong)共行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)要素(su)和過程(cheng)產生著(zhu)深(shen)遠的(de)影響。

關鍵(jian)詞(ci)：信(xin)息技術(shu)公共(gong)行政

在(zai)信(xin)(xin)息時(shi)代，信(xin)(xin)息技(ji)(ji)術(shu)(shu)(shu)是(shi)最(zui)基本和(he)最(zui)為普遍的(de)技(ji)(ji)術(shu)(shu)(shu)手段，在(zai)人類社(she)會生活的(de)每一個(ge)(ge)領(ling)(ling)域、每一個(ge)(ge)方(fang)面都必然會普遍應用著(zhu)信(xin)(xin)息技(ji)(ji)術(shu)(shu)(shu)，公共行(xing)政的(de)領(ling)(ling)域也(ye)不例外(wai)。當前，我們正處在(zai)公共行(xing)政信(xin)(xin)息技(ji)(ji)術(shu)(shu)(shu)化的(de)起(qi)點，預(yu)測(ce)信(xin)(xin)息技(ji)(ji)術(shu)(shu)(shu)在(zai)公共行(xing)政中(zhong)帶(dai)來(lai)變革(ge)的(de)合(he)理形態，對(dui)于我們在(zai)公共行(xing)政領(ling)(ling)域中(zhong)自覺接(jie)納和(he)應用信(xin)(xin)息技(ji)(ji)術(shu)(shu)(shu)是(shi)非常有意義的(de)。一、信(xin)(xin)息技(ji)(ji)術(shu)(shu)(shu)對(dui)行(xing)政人員的(de)影響

行(xing)政人(ren)員由于身處現(xian)(xian)代信息(xi)社會，不可避免地要受到信息(xi)技術發展的影響。具體表現(xian)(xian)為：

·體(ti)能的延伸與增(zeng)強(qiang)。借助于(yu)信息技(ji)術，如電信、機器辦文(wen)辦事(shi)、遠程(cheng)會(hui)議，打(da)破了時(shi)空限制，行政(zheng)人員可(ke)以看到(dao)、聽到(dao)、觸覺到(dao)以前(qian)無法(fa)感知的事(shi)物，可(ke)以完(wan)成(cheng)以前(qian)體(ti)能無法(fa)完(wan)成(cheng)的工作。

·開(kai)闊(kuo)視野，提高判斷、分析和(he)解決問(wen)(wen)題的(de)(de)(de)能(neng)(neng)力。信(xin)息(xi)(xi)(xi)技術的(de)(de)(de)開(kai)發可(ke)使行政人員(yuan)及(ji)時(shi)獲(huo)得(de)大(da)量信(xin)息(xi)(xi)(xi)，有助于他們邏輯地(di)、辯(bian)證地(di)和(he)系統地(di)思考問(wen)(wen)題。互(hu)聯網提供了獲(huo)取信(xin)息(xi)(xi)(xi)的(de)(de)(de)極大(da)便(bian)利(li)，使得(de)行政人員(yuan)“秀才不出(chu)門(men)，而知天下事”、“運籌帷幄之中，決勝千里之外”成為(wei)可(ke)能(neng)(neng)。·時(shi)間和(he)精力的(de)(de)(de)節約。信(xin)息(xi)(xi)(xi)技術節約了原(yuan)來靠(kao)人腦(nao)和(he)文(wen)件處理信(xin)息(xi)(xi)(xi)所消耗(hao)的(de)(de)(de)大(da)量時(shi)間和(he)精力。跨越(yue)時(shi)空，降低了信(xin)息(xi)(xi)(xi)傳輸的(de)(de)(de)時(shi)間成本(ben)、人力成本(ben)。

一、電(dian)大公(gong)共(gong)行政(zheng)學的內容和特點

（一）內容

公(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)學研(yan)(yan)究(jiu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)范圍非(fei)常廣，每(mei)一(yi)(yi)個(ge)部分(fen)(fen)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)研(yan)(yan)究(jiu)都會隨著社會的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)發張而深入(ru)。其(qi)內(nei)容包(bao)括(kuo)(kuo)公(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)學的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)一(yi)(yi)般(ban)理(li)(li)(li)(li)論，這(zhe)些理(li)(li)(li)(li)論是(shi)(shi)課(ke)程(cheng)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)基礎，同時理(li)(li)(li)(li)論的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)得出也是(shi)(shi)在廣泛(fan)實(shi)踐(jian)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)基礎上而來的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)。除了一(yi)(yi)般(ban)理(li)(li)(li)(li)論還必(bi)(bi)須(xu)研(yan)(yan)究(jiu)行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)管(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)主(zhu)體、過(guo)程(cheng)、保障、目的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)等(deng)等(deng)。公(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)學的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)主(zhu)體針對(dui)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)府(fu)部門、組織以及在其(qi)中工作的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)人(ren)員；公(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)管(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)學的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)過(guo)程(cheng)包(bao)括(kuo)(kuo)行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)執行(xing)(xing)、行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)協調(diao)、行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)信息、行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)監督(du)等(deng)等(deng)，這(zhe)些都是(shi)(shi)公(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)學必(bi)(bi)需的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)過(guo)程(cheng)，也是(shi)(shi)在行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)管(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)過(guo)程(cheng)中必(bi)(bi)須(xu)經過(guo)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)階段；公(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)學的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)保障是(shi)(shi)多種多樣(yang)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)，包(bao)括(kuo)(kuo)財務(wu)、法律、道(dao)德以及相(xiang)應的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)方法；公(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)管(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)學的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)目的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)是(shi)(shi)提高行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)管(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)效(xiao)率。公(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)管(guan)理(li)(li)(li)(li)學的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)五個(ge)內(nei)容是(shi)(shi)緊密(mi)相(xiang)連(lian)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)，每(mei)一(yi)(yi)個(ge)部分(fen)(fen)都是(shi)(shi)這(zhe)一(yi)(yi)整體中的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)一(yi)(yi)個(ge)，只有各部分(fen)(fen)有機結合才能達到最好的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)效(xiao)果。

（二）特點

公(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)行(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)學(xue)(xue)(xue)在(zai)教(jiao)學(xue)(xue)(xue)過程中(zhong)要求(qiu)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)治性(xing)(xing)與社(she)會性(xing)(xing)相統一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)，行(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)性(xing)(xing)和社(she)會性(xing)(xing)在(zai)公(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)行(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)學(xue)(xue)(xue)中(zhong)是不相悖(bei)，它(ta)的(de)(de)(de)研究對(dui)象決定了它(ta)的(de)(de)(de)行(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)性(xing)(xing)，而它(ta)又(you)揭示(shi)了社(she)會公(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)管理事務中(zhong)的(de)(de)(de)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)般規(gui)律。一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)方(fang)面這一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)學(xue)(xue)(xue)科是為(wei)上層建筑服務的(de)(de)(de)，另一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)方(fang)面其(qi)成(cheng)果又(you)能被其(qi)他的(de)(de)(de)管理學(xue)(xue)(xue)科所接受和共(gong)享(xiang)。另外，公(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)行(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)學(xue)(xue)(xue)是理論性(xing)(xing)和實用(yong)(yong)性(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)統一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)，公(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)行(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)管理最終的(de)(de)(de)目的(de)(de)(de)是指(zhi)導行(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)工(gong)作(zuo)，而在(zai)這一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)過程中(zhong)理論是必不可(ke)少的(de)(de)(de)。再次，公(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)行(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)學(xue)(xue)(xue)是綜合(he)性(xing)(xing)與獨(du)立性(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de)統一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)，多種(zhong)學(xue)(xue)(xue)科的(de)(de)(de)綜合(he)是公(gong)(gong)(gong)共(gong)行(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)學(xue)(xue)(xue)在(zai)內容上的(de)(de)(de)特點，它(ta)的(de)(de)(de)理論廣泛地應用(yong)(yong)在(zai)多種(zhong)學(xue)(xue)(xue)科中(zhong)，起到理論指(zhi)導的(de)(de)(de)作(zuo)用(yong)(yong)，但就其(qi)自身的(de)(de)(de)研究特點來說，它(ta)又(you)是獨(du)特的(de)(de)(de)。最后，這一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)學(xue)(xue)(xue)科在(zai)一(yi)(yi)(yi)(yi)定階段是規(gui)范的(de)(de)(de)，但也會隨(sui)著社(she)會發展的(de)(de)(de)變化而變化。

二、電大(da)公(gong)共行政學教學方法

一、建立一支精干高效的人事行政管理團隊

人事(shi)(shi)行(xing)政(zheng)管(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)部(bu)門(men)是(shi)煤(mei)礦(kuang)企(qi)業(ye)重要(yao)的(de)(de)職能(neng)(neng)(neng)部(bu)門(men)，其管(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)效能(neng)(neng)(neng)如(ru)何直(zhi)接(jie)關系(xi)到(dao)企(qi)業(ye)的(de)(de)長遠發(fa)展。人事(shi)(shi)行(xing)政(zheng)管(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)部(bu)門(men)是(shi)員工進入企(qi)業(ye)所接(jie)觸到(dao)的(de)(de)第一(yi)個部(bu)門(men)，看到(dao)的(de)(de)“第一(yi)張臉”，其工作作風與工作態度，影響到(dao)員工對(dui)企(qi)業(ye)的(de)(de)印象與評價。因此，要(yao)求人事(shi)(shi)行(xing)政(zheng)管(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)工作者(zhe)具有(you)較高(gao)的(de)(de)思想(xiang)素(su)質(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)、文(wen)(wen)化修(xiu)養與工作能(neng)(neng)(neng)力(li)(li)，展現出良(liang)好的(de)(de)自身(shen)形象。建(jian)立一(yi)支精干(gan)高(gao)效的(de)(de)人事(shi)(shi)行(xing)政(zheng)管(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)團隊(dui)，要(yao)依(yi)靠(kao)富有(you)成效的(de)(de)思想(xiang)政(zheng)治(zhi)工作。首(shou)先(xian)要(yao)提高(gao)人事(shi)(shi)行(xing)政(zheng)管(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)工作者(zhe)的(de)(de)自身(shen)素(su)質(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)，包括政(zheng)治(zhi)思想(xiang)素(su)質(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)、科學文(wen)(wen)化素(su)質(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)、業(ye)務(wu)(wu)能(neng)(neng)(neng)力(li)(li)素(su)質(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)。其次(ci)要(yao)提高(gao)人事(shi)(shi)行(xing)政(zheng)管(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)者(zhe)的(de)(de)服務(wu)(wu)意識(shi)，要(yao)樹立強(qiang)(qiang)烈(lie)的(de)(de)事(shi)(shi)業(ye)心與敬業(ye)愛崗(gang)精神，忠于職守，堅持(chi)原則，顧全大(da)局，增強(qiang)(qiang)主動服務(wu)(wu)意識(shi)。再次(ci)是(shi)提高(gao)組織協調能(neng)(neng)(neng)力(li)(li)，提高(gao)交(jiao)際及溝通技巧，增強(qiang)(qiang)語言文(wen)(wen)字表達能(neng)(neng)(neng)力(li)(li)以及實踐(jian)創新能(neng)(neng)(neng)力(li)(li)。

二(er)、為企業(ye)各項管理制(zhi)度順利實施奠定基礎

企業(ye)以獲(huo)得最佳的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)社(she)會(hui)(hui)效(xiao)益和經(jing)濟效(xiao)益為(wei)(wei)生產經(jing)營目標，要(yao)(yao)不斷(duan)(duan)提(ti)(ti)高產品質量和服務水平(ping)(ping)，提(ti)(ti)高安全生產的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)科(ke)學化水平(ping)(ping)，以滿(man)足客戶不斷(duan)(duan)增(zeng)(zeng)長的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)需求(qiu)。實現(xian)以上目標離不開一套(tao)完整嚴(yan)格(ge)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)管(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)度(du)(du)及相(xiang)關(guan)(guan)措(cuo)施(shi)，并結合(he)企業(ye)管(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)實踐不斷(duan)(duan)加以修改(gai)、提(ti)(ti)高，使之日趨完善(shan)。那么(me)，管(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)規(gui)章(zhang)制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)度(du)(du)與(yu)相(xiang)關(guan)(guan)措(cuo)施(shi)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)建(jian)(jian)設完善(shan)，必(bi)須與(yu)思(si)(si)想(xiang)(xiang)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)治工(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)作(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)作(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)為(wei)(wei)指導(dao)(dao)(dao)與(yu)引(yin)導(dao)(dao)(dao)。規(gui)章(zhang)制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)度(du)(du)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)定(ding)要(yao)(yao)符(fu)(fu)合(he)黨和國(guo)家(jia)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)路(lu)線方針政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)策，要(yao)(yao)符(fu)(fu)合(he)國(guo)家(jia)有關(guan)(guan)法(fa)律(lv)法(fa)規(gui)要(yao)(yao)求(qiu)，更要(yao)(yao)符(fu)(fu)合(he)員(yuan)(yuan)工(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)思(si)(si)想(xiang)(xiang)實際與(yu)工(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)作(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)實際。在(zai)(zai)管(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)度(du)(du)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)定(ding)與(yu)實施(shi)過程(cheng)中，要(yao)(yao)充(chong)分解放(fang)思(si)(si)想(xiang)(xiang)，堅(jian)持民主(zhu)集中制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)原則，堅(jian)持以人為(wei)(wei)本，符(fu)(fu)合(he)科(ke)學發(fa)展(zhan)觀要(yao)(yao)求(qiu)，要(yao)(yao)廣泛(fan)征求(qiu)充(chong)分聽取員(yuan)(yuan)工(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)群(qun)眾意見建(jian)(jian)議。管(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)度(du)(du)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)順利實施(shi)，應該(gai)建(jian)(jian)立在(zai)(zai)充(chong)分的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)民意基礎上，只有為(wei)(wei)大(da)多數員(yuan)(yuan)工(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)認同(tong)認可的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)規(gui)章(zhang)制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)度(du)(du)，員(yuan)(yuan)工(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)才(cai)會(hui)(hui)樂意接受并轉化為(wei)(wei)自覺行(xing)(xing)為(wei)(wei)。充(chong)分發(fa)揮(hui)思(si)(si)想(xiang)(xiang)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)治工(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)作(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)在(zai)(zai)教育宣傳上的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)作(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)用(yong)，使員(yuan)(yuan)工(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)理(li)(li)解制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)定(ding)與(yu)執行(xing)(xing)制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)度(du)(du)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)重(zhong)要(yao)(yao)性與(yu)必(bi)要(yao)(yao)性，不斷(duan)(duan)提(ti)(ti)高思(si)(si)想(xiang)(xiang)覺悟，增(zeng)(zeng)強主(zhu)人翁責(ze)任感，摒棄自由主(zhu)義(yi)思(si)(si)想(xiang)(xiang)，增(zeng)(zeng)強嚴(yan)格(ge)執行(xing)(xing)制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)度(du)(du)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)自制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)力與(yu)自覺性。如果沒有扎實有效(xiao)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)思(si)(si)想(xiang)(xiang)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)治工(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)作(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)，員(yuan)(yuan)工(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)可能對(dui)制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)度(du)(du)存在(zai)(zai)反感與(yu)抗拒心理(li)(li)，認為(wei)(wei)制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)度(du)(du)就是(shi)用(yong)來約束人，用(yong)來修整人的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)，明里(li)暗(an)里(li)對(dui)著制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)度(du)(du)唱反調，從而(er)經(jing)常(chang)發(fa)生違反制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)度(du)(du)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)事，大(da)大(da)削弱了(le)制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)度(du)(du)在(zai)(zai)管(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)上的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)作(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)用(yong)。要(yao)(yao)充(chong)分發(fa)揮(hui)思(si)(si)想(xiang)(xiang)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)治工(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)作(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)在(zai)(zai)行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)(zheng)管(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)中的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)導(dao)(dao)(dao)向作(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)用(yong)，引(yin)導(dao)(dao)(dao)員(yuan)(yuan)工(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)樹(shu)立正確(que)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)思(si)(si)想(xiang)(xiang)觀念與(yu)價值取向，通過制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)度(du)(du)管(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)實現(xian)企業(ye)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)科(ke)學高效(xiao)運轉，為(wei)(wei)制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)度(du)(du)管(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)營造團結、合(he)作(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)、公正的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)環(huan)境，激發(fa)員(yuan)(yuan)工(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)工(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)(gong)作(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)熱情(qing)與(yu)創新精神。

三(san)、創造和(he)諧的(de)(de)人事(shi)氛圍和(he)良好的(de)(de)工(gong)作環(huan)境

市場經濟(ji)深(shen)(shen)入發展(zhan)(zhan)，企(qi)(qi)業(ye)和(he)員工(gong)(gong)的(de)(de)(de)社會(hui)化(hua)程度(du)日(ri)益(yi)提(ti)(ti)高，職工(gong)(gong)的(de)(de)(de)思(si)想狀況更加復雜，客(ke)觀上要(yao)(yao)(yao)(yao)求企(qi)(qi)業(ye)加強科學管(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)，通過(guo)建立(li)健全完(wan)成的(de)(de)(de)管(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)條例與(yu)(yu)(yu)規章(zhang)制(zhi)度(du)提(ti)(ti)升管(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)水平(ping)。在制(zhi)定制(zhi)度(du)的(de)(de)(de)過(guo)程中，要(yao)(yao)(yao)(yao)發揮思(si)想政(zheng)(zheng)治(zhi)工(gong)(gong)作(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)的(de)(de)(de)指(zhi)導與(yu)(yu)(yu)引導作(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)用，教育(yu)員工(gong)(gong)深(shen)(shen)刻理(li)(li)解(jie)管(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)制(zhi)度(du)與(yu)(yu)(yu)個人(ren)權(quan)益(yi)之間的(de)(de)(de)關系，深(shen)(shen)刻理(li)(li)解(jie)企(qi)(qi)業(ye)利益(yi)與(yu)(yu)(yu)個人(ren)利益(yi)的(de)(de)(de)關系，要(yao)(yao)(yao)(yao)體現(xian)民主集(ji)中集(ji)中制(zhi)原則，讓(rang)員工(gong)(gong)積(ji)極參與(yu)(yu)(yu)，充(chong)分(fen)發表(biao)意見和(he)建議，切實維(wei)護(hu)廣大職工(gong)(gong)的(de)(de)(de)合法權(quan)益(yi)，從(cong)而(er)創造(zao)健康和(he)諧(xie)(xie)(xie)的(de)(de)(de)勞(lao)動關系，為(wei)(wei)企(qi)(qi)業(ye)發展(zhan)(zhan)壯大提(ti)(ti)供生機和(he)活力(li)源(yuan)泉。企(qi)(qi)業(ye)在改革發展(zhan)(zhan)過(guo)程中，會(hui)遇到(dao)各(ge)種各(ge)樣的(de)(de)(de)人(ren)事管(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)問(wen)題(ti)，思(si)想政(zheng)(zheng)治(zhi)工(gong)(gong)作(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)可以發揮重要(yao)(yao)(yao)(yao)作(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)用，通過(guo)卓(zhuo)有成效的(de)(de)(de)思(si)想政(zheng)(zheng)治(zhi)工(gong)(gong)作(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)，統一思(si)想、消(xiao)除(chu)疑(yi)慮、化(hua)解(jie)矛盾、理(li)(li)順懷(huai)疑(yi)、激發斗志(zhi)，從(cong)而(er)極大地提(ti)(ti)升企(qi)(qi)業(ye)凝(ning)聚(ju)力(li)與(yu)(yu)(yu)戰斗力(li)，為(wei)(wei)人(ren)事管(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)營(ying)造(zao)良好的(de)(de)(de)工(gong)(gong)作(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)氛(fen)圍。利益(yi)調節(jie)機制(zhi)有利于(yu)解(jie)決一些(xie)人(ren)事糾紛，但在解(jie)決思(si)想道德(de)層面(mian)的(de)(de)(de)問(wen)題(ti)就顯得力(li)不從(cong)心了，也(ye)不利于(yu)和(he)諧(xie)(xie)(xie)社會(hui)、和(he)諧(xie)(xie)(xie)企(qi)(qi)業(ye)的(de)(de)(de)建設。因此，要(yao)(yao)(yao)(yao)堅持(chi)(chi)把制(zhi)度(du)管(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)與(yu)(yu)(yu)思(si)想政(zheng)(zheng)治(zhi)工(gong)(gong)作(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)相融合，在強化(hua)嚴格制(zhi)度(du)管(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)的(de)(de)(de)同時，要(yao)(yao)(yao)(yao)增(zeng)強服務意識，堅持(chi)(chi)以人(ren)為(wei)(wei)本，傾(qing)聽廣大員工(gong)(gong)的(de)(de)(de)呼聲，積(ji)極回應他們(men)的(de)(de)(de)關切，使人(ren)事管(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)(li)工(gong)(gong)作(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)充(chong)滿人(ren)情味，創造(zao)和(he)諧(xie)(xie)(xie)的(de)(de)(de)人(ren)事氛(fen)圍和(he)工(gong)(gong)作(zuo)(zuo)(zuo)環(huan)境(jing)。